The Tughlaq Dynasty (1320-1414 CE) marked a significant era in the Delhi Sultanate, known for ambitious reforms, military conquests, and eventual fragmentation. Founded by Ghiyasuddin Tughlaq, this dynasty produced capable rulers like Muhammad bin Tughlaq and Firoz Shah Tughlaq, whose policies shaped medieval Indian history.
Foundation of the Tughlaq Dynasty
In 1320 CE, ‘Ghazi Malik’ (Ghiyasuddin Tughlaq) established the Tughlaq Dynasty. Ghazi Malik’s lineage is considered indigenous. His father arrived in Hindustan during Balban’s reign and married a Jat girl from Punjab. This dynasty had three capable rulers: Ghiyasuddin Tughlaq (1320-1324 CE), his son Muhammad bin Tughlaq (1324-1351 CE), and his successor Firoz Shah Tughlaq (1351-1387 CE). The first two rulers held authority over almost the entire country. Firoz’s empire was smaller than theirs but not less than Alauddin Khilji’s. Although Tughlaq sultans ruled Delhi until 1412 CE, the disintegration of the Tughlaq Empire began with Timur’s invasion of Delhi in 1398 CE, and in 1413 CE, the Sayyid Dynasty established power in Delhi.
Ghiyasuddin Tughlaq (1320-1325 CE)
Ghiyasuddin Tughlaq was the first ruler of the Tughlaq Dynasty. Known as ‘Ghazi Malik’ or ‘Tughlaq Ghazi’, he ascended the Delhi throne on September 8, 1320 CE. He was the first sultan of the Delhi Sultanate to add ‘Ghazi’ (meaning ‘slayer of infidels’) to his name. Before becoming sultan, Ghiyasuddin served as governor (subedar) of the north-western frontier province (Dipalpur) during Qutbuddin Mubarak Khilji’s reign, protecting the sultanate’s borders from Mongol invasions. When Khusrau Shah murdered Mubarak Shah and seized the throne, Gh.org Ghiyasuddin rebelled, reached Delhi with a powerful army, killed Sultan Khusrau, and declared himself sultan. An inscription in a Multan mosque claims Ghazi stated: ‘I defeated the Tatars in 29 battles; my name is Malik-ul-Ghazi.’
Challenges Faced by Ghiyasuddin Tughlaq
When Ghiyasuddin ascended the throne, conditions were extremely grave. The Delhi Sultanate’s influence had ended in frontier provinces. After Alauddin’s death, the era of anarchy disrupted his administrative system. Due to central authority’s weakness, many governors rebelled, and some declared independence. Chaos prevailed everywhere, but Ghazi Malik differed from his predecessors, primarily due to his early training in adverse conditions, which built his character strength. Ghiyasuddin Tughlaq was pious, compassionate, generous, and God-fearing. Amir Khusrau praised him: ‘Every action revealed intelligence and cleverness. It seemed his crown housed all virtues.’ Lane-Poole wrote: ‘He was a reliable frontier guardian, just, ambitious, and powerful ruler.’
Achievements of Ghiyasuddin Tughlaq
Ghiyasuddin Tughlaq adopted a policy to please nobles while harshly suppressing some rebellious chiefs. According to Barani, the administration Alauddin Khilji achieved through bloodshed and tyranny was accomplished by Ghiyasuddin Ghazi Malik in four years without severity.
Military Campaigns and Conquests
Ghiyasuddin Tughlaq was a complete imperialist sultan. He followed the Khilji policy of military dominance and imperialism to establish sultanate authority over various provinces, a reaction to which began with his successor Muhammad bin Tughlaq’s failures. His army included Ghuzz, Turks, Mongols, Rumis, Tajiks, Khorasanis, and Mewatis.
Conquest of Warangal and Telangana
In the Deccan, Kakatiya king Prataparudradeva II of Warangal declared independence after Alauddin’s death and stopped paying tribute to Delhi. In his second regnal year (1321 CE), Ghiyasuddin sent an army under his eldest son and heir Fakhruddin Jauna Khan against Warangal. Delhi’s army besieged Warangal’s mud fort, but due to conspiracies and an epidemic, Prince Jauna Khan returned to Delhi without success.
In 1323 CE, the sultan sent a second army under the same prince against Warangal for re-establishing sultanate dominance in South India. This time, Jauna Khan succeeded; Kakatiya king Prataparudradeva surrendered with his family and chiefs. Jauna Khan sent him to Delhi, annexed the entire Kakatiya state to the Delhi Sultanate, and renamed Warangal as Sultanpur. Although the Delhi sultan did not formally merge the Kakatiya state into his empire, its ancient power and glory soon ended. Jauna Khan also conquered the Pandya state of Madura and included it in the Delhi Sultanate.
Returning from Warangal, Jauna Khan attacked Tirhut (Odisha)’s king Harsinghdeva and obtained immense wealth. The defeated king became a vassal of the Delhi Sultanate. Thus, during Ghiyasuddin’s time, southern states were first incorporated into the Delhi Sultanate.
Mongol Victories
In 1324 CE, while Jauna Khan was busy conquering South India, Mongols invaded India. Ghiyasuddin sent a powerful army that defeated the Mongols and drove them beyond Indian borders.
Suppression of Bengal Rebellion
Like Warangal, Bengal declared independence exploiting Delhi’s political instability. After Shamsuddin Firoz Shah’s death in 1322 CE, succession struggles among his sons—Ghiyasuddin Bahadur, Shahabuddin Bogar Shah, and Nasiruddin—gave Ghiyasuddin Tughlaq an excuse to intervene.
Ghiyasuddin Bahadur, ruling eastern Bengal independently from Sonargaon since 1310 CE, defeated Shahabuddin Bogar (capital Lakhnauti) and seized Bengal’s throne. Younger brother Nasiruddin appealed to Delhi’s sultan for help. Sultan Ghazi Malik seized this opportunity to fully control the distant province, whose loyalty to Delhi sultans was always shaky, and sent an army under Zafar Khan to attack Lakhnauti in 1324 CE. Zafar Khan captured Bengal, imprisoned Ghiyasuddin Bahadur and sent him to Delhi, and installed Nasiruddin as subordinate ruler in western Bengal. Eastern Bengal became a Delhi Sultanate province.
While in Bengal, Ghiyasuddin learned Jauna Khan (Muhammad bin Tughlaq) had become a disciple of Nizamuddin Auliya, who prophesied his kingship. Ghiyasuddin threatened Nizamuddin Auliya, who replied: ‘Hanuz Delhi dur ast’ (Delhi is still far away).
On Ghiyasuddin’s return from Bengal, Jauna Khan built a wooden palace in Afghanpur (8 km from Tughlaqabad) by Ahmad Ayaz for his welcome. As the sultan entered, the palace collapsed, killing him in March 1325 CE. Sheikh Ruknuddin was present but removed by Ulugh Khan on pretext of namaz. Historians debate if Jauna Khan was responsible or it was an accident. Ghiyasuddin Tughlaq’s mausoleum is in Tughlaqabad.
Reforms by Ghiyasuddin Tughlaq
Ghiyasuddin Tughlaq tried rectifying predecessors’ flaws and reorganizing administration. Though it caused some disrepute, his wise generosity and public welfare works soon erased it. He appointed loyal governors in provinces, reduced taxes, curbed governmental looting and oppression, and promoted agriculture—the main occupation.
Economic Reforms
Mubarak Shah and Khusrau’s extravagance ruined the state’s economy. Ghiyasuddin balanced austerity, strictness, and leniency in economic policy against Alauddin Khilji’s harshness, called ‘rasm-e-miyan’ or middle path by Barani. He rigorously investigated privileges and jagirs, confiscating illegal ones granted by Sultan Khusrau. Restored some concessions to khuts, muqaddams, and chaudharis but not huquq-e-khuti. Abandoned Khilji-era land measurement (masahat) and restored old system.
Promotion of Agriculture
Ghiyasuddin focused on farmers’ interests for agricultural promotion. Arranged loans and waiver during natural disasters. Ordered officials not to increase iqta revenue more than 1/10 to 1/11 annually, prohibited physical torture for revenue recovery. Built wells and canals for irrigation—likely the first Delhi sultan to build canals. Planted gardens and built forts to protect farmers from looters.
Reforms in Army and Police
Reformed army and police, creating order and security. Made military department efficient. Personally inspected army; Barani says he treated soldiers like sons. Effectively implemented Alauddin Khilji’s horse branding and facial description. Reorganized police; Barani: ‘Due to organized police, roads became safe, robbers turned to farming.’
Establishment of Justice Department
Established justice department for easy, impartial justice. Prepared new laws based on old rules and Quran, strictly enforced. His rule based on justice and generosity, always mindful of public welfare.
Public Reforms
Credit for strengthening postal system in sultanate era goes to Ghiyasuddin Tughlaq. Barani detailed his superior postal system. Reorganized postal for correspondence. Built new roads, cleaned old ones. As a generous sultan, interested in welfare: established ‘danshala’ for poor, disabled; aided religious institutions and scholars. Court poet Amir Khusrau received 1000 tanka monthly pension.
Construction Works
Ghiyasuddin interested in architecture: built forts, bridges, canals; founded Tughlaqabad fort.
Religious Policy
Though a staunch Sunni Muslim, tolerant toward other religions. Deep faith in Islam, carefully followed principles. Opposed music.
Muhammad bin Tughlaq (1325-1351 CE)
Three days after his father’s death in February-March 1325 CE, Prince Jauna Khan declared himself sultan as Muhammad bin Tughlaq and assumed ‘Muhammad Tughlaq Shah’. A Rajamundari inscription calls Muhammad Tughlaq (Jauna or Juna Khan) ‘Khan of the world’. In 1320 CE, when his father became sultan, he declared himself heir and assumed ‘Ulugh Khan’. Proved military skill in Warangal campaign.
Personality of Muhammad bin Tughlaq
Forty days after Ghiyasuddin’s death, he marched to Delhi and ascended throne in ancient palace amid pomp without opposition. Like Alauddin, distributed gold-silver coins to people and titles to nobles.
Sources for Muhammad bin Tughlaq’s reign: Contemporary officer Ziauddin Barani (wrote under successor Firoz Shah); Persian texts like Shams Siraj’s Tarikh-e-Firozshahi, Ainul Mulk Multani’s Munshat-e-Mahru, Amir Khusrau’s Tughlaqnama, Yahya bin Ahmad Sarhindi’s Tarikh-e-Mubarakshahi (later, supplementary). African traveler Ibn Battuta’s account (arrived India September 1333 CE, appointed Delhi’s chief qazi till July 1342 CE as sultan’s envoy to China) mostly impartial. Muhammad bin Tughlaq’s coins provide useful information.
Muhammad bin Tughlaq’s personality extraordinary, hard to place in history. Called visionary, mad, bloodthirsty, irreligious due to plans, cruel acts, indifference to others’ joy-sorrow. Genius or mad? Idealist or dreamer? Bloodthirsty oppressor or benevolent? Hypocrite or pious Muslim?
Actually, most learned, sharp-minded, secular, art-loving, experienced commander among Delhi sultans. Master of logic, philosophy, mathematics, astronomy, physics. Command over composition and style. Good knowledge of Arabic, Persian; quoted Persian verses in letters. Not ignorant of medicine. Scholars thought twice before debating him. Experienced commander with many victories, few defeats.
But lacked practical decision-making and common sense. Immersed in high ideals and imaginary plans due to theoretical knowledge. Like Alauddin, initially neither sought caliph’s approval nor ulema support (later forced). Ended ulema monopoly on justice. First to appoint based on merit without discrimination, ending caste-class bias. Plans theoretically solid, sometimes politically insightful, but unfortunate innovative plans proved impractical, making him historians’ critic.
After ascension, granted titles and posts to nobles. Tatar Khan ‘Bahram Khan’, Malik Qabul ‘Imad-ul-Mulk’ and wazir-e-mumalik (later Khan-e-Jahan, Gujarat governor). Malik Ayaz ‘Khawaja Jahan’ and shahna-e-imarat. Maulana Ghiyasuddin (sultan’s teacher) ‘Qutlug Khan’ and wakil-e-dar. Cousin Firoz Shah Tughlaq ‘nayab barbak’.
Innovative Plans of Muhammad bin Tughlaq
At ascension, Delhi Sultanate divided into 23 provinces: Delhi, Devagiri, Lahore, Multan, Sarmuti, Gujarat, Awadh, Kannauj, Lakhnauti, Bihar, Malwa, Jajnagar (Odisha), Dwarsamudra, etc. Kashmir and Baluchistan not included. Muhammad bin Tughlaq implemented innovative plans for various reasons:
- Tax increase in Doab
- Capital transfer
- Token currency introduction
- Khorasan and Karachil campaigns
Tax Increase in Doab Region
Early in reign, Muhammad bin Tughlaq made ill-advised economic experiment in fertile Doab (Ganga-Yamuna). Increased land tax rate, revived extra taxes (abwabs). Due to variations in contemporary/later Muslim writers, exact increase uncertain. Some modern scholars suggest not excessive, max 50%, within Alauddin’s limits.
Historians believe aim was punitive against rebellious Doab inhabitants and treasury replenishment (not as Badauni or Wolseley Haig assumed). Main goal: enhance military resources, organize administration efficiently. Undoubtedly caused great hardship, especially during famine with low yield. Barani: ‘Peasants’ bones broke, grain expensive, low rain, famine everywhere for years, thousands suffered. No state relief for farmers. Despite famine, demands not reduced; officials collected harshly.’ Forced collection led to farmer revolts.
Later, sultan provided low-interest loans (sonthar), dug wells, aided uncultivated land farming, but too late. Cultivation ruined; poor Doab farmers abandoned fields. Enraged sultan harshly retaliated against unwilling peasants, disastrous for Tughlaq Dynasty.
**Establishment of Amir-e-Kohi**: Sultan created ‘Amir-e-Kohi’ department for agricultural development. Main goal: expand cultivable land with state aid. Selected 60 sq mile area, appointed officers. Rotational crops sown; spent ~70 lakh rupees in two years. Failed due to official corruption, farmer indifference, infertile land; ended after three years. Funds misused; plan victim of corruption.
Capital Transfer (1327 CE)
In 1327 CE, Muhammad bin Tughlaq’s decision to shift capital from Delhi to Devagiri (renamed Daulatabad) proved another misguided step. Devagiri called ‘Quwwat-ul-Islam’. Qutbuddin Mubarak Khilji named it Qutbabad; Muhammad bin Tughlaq renamed Daulatabad.
Not vengeful madness (some modern assumptions), but solid reasons: new capital central, strategically good. Empire included Doab north, Punjab plains, Lahore, Sindh to Gujarat coast; east full Bengal; center Malwa, Mahoba, Ujjain, Dhar; south Deccan.
Barani: Daulatabad central; Delhi, Gujarat, Lakhnauti, Satgaon, Sonargaon, Telem, Mabar, Dwarsamudra, Kampil nearly equidistant. Efficient administration possible. Fully safe from Mongol invasions.
Built beautiful buildings in Daulatabad for officials/public. Ibn Battuta, Abdul Hamid Lahori (Shah Jahan’s historian), 17th-century Europeans described splendor. Facilities for settlers. Wide road with shady trees, inns, regular postal between Delhi-Daulatabad. Barani: Sultan generous to migrants, during travel, on arrival. Acted wisely.
But when Delhiites hesitated emotionally, sultan’s harsh nature prevailed; ordered all to Daulatabad with belongings. No need believe Ibn Battuta’s claim of dragging blind or catapulting lame. Barani: ‘Without consultation, destroyed Delhi, prosperous 170-80 years, rivaling Baghdad, Cairo. City, inns, suburbs, villages ruined. Not even cat/dog left. Forced families to leave; hearts broke, many died en route, survivors perished in exile.’ Barani’s exaggeration unacceptable; complete destruction unthinkable. True: 700-mile journey caused immense suffering; many died, survivors desolate in unfamiliar land. Stanley Lane-Poole apt: Daulatabad monument of misguided power.
Eventually realizing mistake, returned court to Delhi, allowed return. Few survived. Delhi lost ancient prosperity long-term. Ibn Battuta saw ruins in 1334 CE. But promoted Muslim culture in south, paving Bahmani Empire.
Introduction of Token Currency
Revolutionary currency reforms. Called ‘Prince of Moneyers’ by Edward Thomas. Issued new gold coin ‘dinar’ (200 grains, per Ibn Battuta). Revived ‘adli’ gold (140 grains silver equivalent) against previous 175-grain gold/silver. Perhaps due to Deccan conquests reducing gold-silver value. ‘Dokni’ and ‘sultan’ for ordinary transactions. Coins famous for artistry. Thomas: ‘Muhammad Tughlaq attracts as coiners’ chief. Educational in novelty/variety, praiseworthy in artistic excellence, important reflecting sultan’s personality.’
Most important: 1329-1330 CE token currency in copper (Barani) or brass (Firishtha), equivalent gold-silver. Precedents: China (Kublai Khan paper, late 13th century successful); Persia (Gaykhatu leather 1294 failed). Ordered copper/brass tokens circulate as gold-silver. Some historians: global silver shortage. Main aim: refill empty treasury for ambitious conquests/administration. Not fraud. Mehdi Hussain: Collective good, politically sound, but implementation faulty. Failed, heavy economic loss.
Failed mainly: Ahead of time, public misunderstood; no state monopoly on copper coins, no anti-forgery precautions. Thomas: No distinction between mint and ordinary craftsman coins. No restrictions like China’s paper. Result: Fake mints, massive forgeries. Barani: Every Hindu home a mint; Hindus minted crores, paid taxes, bought horses/weapons/luxuries. Village heads, landowners rich; state poor. Where sultan’s fear, gold tanka = 100 copper. Every goldsmith minted copper.
Fake taxes filled treasury; value fell to pebbles. Old coins rare, value 4-5 times. Trade/business suffered; economy stalled. Sultan realized mistake ~4 years later, revoked. Announced deposit copper for gold/silver equivalent. Public wealth sacrificed without gain. So many copper to Delhi, heaps in Tughlaqabad visible century later (Mubarak Shah II).
Khorasan Conquest Plan
Like Alauddin, Muhammad bin Tughlaq dreamed world conquest. Encouraged by Khorasani nobles (lured by generosity), planned conquer Khorasan/Iraq early reign; amassed huge army. Barani: Diwan-e-Arz registered 370,000 soldiers, advance salary year (cash/iqta). Huge arms expenditure. Hoped Khorasan loot cover.
True: Khorasan chaotic under Abu Said. But Delhi conquest impossible; sultan’s control insecure, especially Deccan. Geographic/transport difficulties: Hindukush/Himalaya with huge army, distant supply hard. Delhi soldiers used to weak Indian powers, not Central Asian warriors. Chagatai Tarmashirin Khan, Egypt sultan eyed Persian empire; false friends. Every view: Against policy.
Khorasan sultan suppressed opponents, strengthened; compromise. Plan abandoned. Barani: ‘Desired countries not acquired; wealth—real power source—spent. Soldiers disappointed, unemployed, later crisis.’
Other Achievements of Muhammad Tughlaq
Conquest of Nagarkot
Abandoned Khorasan but pursued other conquests. Attacked Nagarkot fort (Kangra, Punjab) 1337 CE—challenge since Mahmud Ghaznavi. Hindu king fought bravely but defeated, accepted suzerainty.
Karachil Campaign
Never thought conquer Tibet/China, but Barani/Ibn Battuta mention Karjal mountain (between Hind/China) plan. Clearly against Kumaun-Garhwal tribes, frontier policy part. Ibn Battuta: 10 days from Delhi. 1337-1338 CE: 10,000 horsemen under Khusro Malik.
Full arrangements: supply, retreat. Posts established. Initial success, captured Jidda. Then rain; despite warning, advanced. Geography, heavy rain, supply shortage caused disease, panic. Hill people stone attacks worsened. Army lost in jungles. Barani: Only 10 survivors; Ibn Battuta: 3. Immediate goal achieved—hills sued peace, agreed tribute. But ‘Campaign shocked sultan’s military so much, never organized large army again.’ All ambitious plans failed; became ‘King of Failures’.
Mongol Invasions in Muhammad Tughlaq’s Era
Not fully free from external threats. Ghiyasuddin fortified western borders, no Mongols in his reign. 1328-29 CE, during Daulatabad absence, Transoxiana Chagatai Tarmashirin invaded northwest, looted Punjab plains, reached Delhi outskirts. Yahya bin Ahmad/Badauni: Muhammad defeated, expelled. Firishtha: Bribed with gold/jewels. Ordinary raid; vanished suddenly. No further Mongol invasions in his time.
In distress, sought Abbasid caliph Egypt’s patent for legitimacy. Received, inscribed caliph on khutba/coins instead own. Goal failed. Public loyalty shattered beyond caliph patent repair. No objection to sultan’s right; policies/actions disliked.
Faced severe difficulties everywhere. Telangana: Pralaya Nayak, nephew Krishna organized Hindu national movement with Hoysala Veera Ballala III aid. Krishna river areas similar. Result: Vijayanagara Hindu state, other Deccan Hindu states. Harassing Amiran-e-Sada worsened troubles; rebellions. Devagiri: Foreign amirs rebelled; August 1347, Abul Muzaffar Alauddin Bahman Shah founded Bahmani. Sultan suppressing one area, another erupted. Chasing Sindh rebels, fever near Thatta; died March 20, 1351 CE. Badauni: ‘King freed from subjects; subjects from king.’
Actually, tragic end; 23-province empire fragmented. Sultan mostly responsible. Extraordinary intellect/diligence but lacked constructive politician qualities. Improper actions/harsh policies against public will doomed empire.
Major Rebellions in Muhammad Tughlaq’s Era
Delhi Sultanate’s maximum expansion in his reign. Intelligent sultan; many public welfare plans, but failed. Plans not wrong, implementation faulty. Doab tax hike dissatisfied farmers; unemployed soldiers caused chaos. Capital shift, Khorasan/Karachil plans difficulties; token currency ruined sultanate. Immense public suffering, widespread discontent; many rebellions—27 in South India alone. Key rebellions:
Bahauddin Gurshasp Rebellion
1327 CE: Ghiyasuddin Tughlaq’s nephew, Muhammad bin Tughlaq’s cousin Bahauddin Gurshasp (Sagar jagirdar near Gulbarga, Deccan) refused suzerainty, rebelled. Yahya Sarhindi: First rebellion. Defeated, imprisoned to Delhi. Skinned alive, stuffed straw; corpse paraded; hanged as warning.
Bahram Aiba aka Kishlu Khan Rebellion
1327-1328 CE: Sindh/Multan jagirdar Bahram Aiba (Kishlu Khan) fierce rebellion. Ibn Battuta: Sultan already dissatisfied for disobedience. Muhammad in Devagiri; marched Delhi to Multan. Clash near Abuhar. Deceived: Sheikh Isamuddin under royal umbrella; Bahram killed him thinking sultan, rested. Captured, beheaded; head hung Multan gate. Planned Multan massacre but fakir Ruknuddin stopped. Suppressions didn’t strengthen; from 1325, fortune declined; Hindu chiefs/Muslim governors openly challenged, dared independence.
Exploiting northern entanglement, Mabar ruler Jalaluddin Hasan Shah declared independence 1335 CE, minted coins. Sultan marched but cholera in army at Warangal; forced Daulatabad return; Mabar lost. Madura independent Muslim state till 1377-1378 CE.
Bengal governor Fakhruddin Mubarak Shah (loyalty always doubtful) threw yoke 1338 CE, minted coins. Sultan entangled, couldn’t subdue; Bengal independent.
Other areas rapid revolts. 1337-1338 CE: Kara governor Nizam Bhai rebelled, defeated, skinned stuffed. 1338-1339 CE: Bidar governor Nusrat Khan rebelled, surrendered, jagir seized. 1339-1340 CE: Gulbarga Alishah rebelled, defeated, exiled Ghazni.
All suppressed by 1342 end, but drained resources, weakened sultan’s vigor.
Awadh Rebellion
Awadh governor Ainul Mulk sultan’s friend, appointed Awadh/Zafarabad. 1340 CE transferred Daulatabad; thought power reduction. Refused south. Defeated, imprisoned but pardoned for past services, reinstated.
Sindh and Multan Rebellions
Sindh Jats/Rajputs rebelled, defeated, leaders converted. Rebel Shah Afghan killed governor Bahjad, declared independent. Defeated, fled hills.
Establishment of Vijayanagara
1335 CE: Madura Hindu state in south. 1336 CE: Harihara/Bukka brothers founded independent Vijayanagara. 1343-44 CE: Krishnanayak expanded after Hoysala fall 1346 CE.
Devagiri and Bahmani Foundation
Daulatabad governor Qutlug Khan embezzled revenue; sultan wanted Ainul Mulk there. Ainul Mulk rebelled refusing south. Alim-ul-Mulk temporary; amirs rebelled against incompetence. Firishtha: Qutlug removal/incompetence caused discontent, country ruined. Sultan marched Daulatabad but returned for Gujarat rebellion. Amirs retook Devagiri, accepted Hasan Gangu leader. Area became Bahmani Empire.
Gujarat Rebellion and Sultan’s Death
Gujarat final. Devagiri news: Taghi led native/foreign Muslim amirs/Hindu chiefs rebelled. Sultan marched, drove Taghi from Gujarat. Taghi sheltered Sindh ruler Shubh. Pursuing to Sindh, fell seriously ill near Godal en route Thatta; died March 20, 1351 CE. Badauni on death: ‘Sultan freed from subjects; subjects from sultan.’
Reasons for Muhammad Tughlaq’s Failure
Couldn’t successfully implement far-sighted plans; complete failure. Despite high ideals/public welfare, failed. Reasons: Improper implementation caused suffering, bred rebellion. Not fanatic Muslim like others; kept ulema from politics, alienated most Muslims/officials. Harshly punished ulema crimes. Stopped caliph name on coins.
Many historians blame generosity: Lane-Poole: Ascended, money flowed like water; treasury empty. Langar fed 400 daily. Economic ruin inevitable. Harsh punishment, lack capable advisors, unstable character harmful. Officials didn’t cooperate, corrupted, misused funds; all plans failed successively.
Religious Policy of Muhammad Tughlaq
Tolerant religiously. Honored Jain scholar/saint Jinaprabha Suri at court. First Delhi sultan participated Hindu festivals—Holi, Diwali. Appointed Sheikh Shihabuddin Diwan-e-Mustakhraj, Sheikh Muizzuddin Gujarat governor, Syed Kalamuddin Kirmani army. Sheikh Nizamuddin Chirag-e-Delhi opponent. Isami called anti-Islam.
Many called ‘real devil incarnation’; some like Smith, Gardiner Brown half-mad. Lane-Poole: Failures tragic result self-defeating high emotions. Undoubtedly ablest medieval sultans. Very kind but sometimes excessively cruel/oppressive. Character mix opposites. Overall, ablest crown-wearer medieval. Most learned/cultured post-Muslim establishment Delhi throne. Inscribed coins: ‘Al Sultan zill Allah’, ‘Sultan shadow of God’, ‘Sultan God’s supporter’. Good poet, music lover.
Firoz Shah Tughlaq (1351-1388 CE)
Sudden death March 20, 1351 CE near Thatta left army leaderless, chaotic. Nobles urged Firoz ascend to save army. Initially hesitated but agreed due gravity; coronated near Thatta March 23, 1351 CE at 46. Restored army order. Born 1309 CE; son of Muhammad Tughlaq’s uncle Sipahsalar Rajjab. Mother ‘Bibi Naila’ daughter Dipalpur Rajput chief Ranmal.
Not yet out Sindh when late sultan’s agent Khwaja Jahan declared boy Muhammad bin Tughlaq’s son/heir in Delhi. Crisis for Firoz. Reached Multan, consulted nobles/Muslim jurists. Nobles denied Muhammad had son. Jurists disqualified candidate minor. Khwaja Jahan weak, soon surrendered; second coronation Delhi August 1351. Pardoned past services, allowed retire Samana jagir. But Sunam/Samana commander Sher Khan’s ally killed him en route. Meanwhile, late sultan’s sister Khudawandzada plotted assassinate Firoz for son Dawar Malik despite respect. Informed, reduced pension, exiled husband.
Firoz faced huge task: Lift Delhi Sultanate from weakness/corruption fallen late predecessors. Farmer/noble discontent rising; disintegration threat. Ulema dissatisfied Muhammad’s policies. Treasury empty. New sultan not very capable; lacked great commander qualities. Never earnestly tried recover lost provinces; military mostly failed. Lacked quick decisions; near victory, retreated sparing co-religionists’ blood.
Military Actions of Firoz Tughlaq
Campaign Against Bengal
After becoming sultan, campaigned recover separated provinces. East: Independent Bengal ruler Haji Ilyas (Shamsuddin Ilyas Shah) expanding, violating Delhi borders. Firoz left Delhi November 1353 CE with 70,000 horsemen to teach lesson. Hearing, Ilyas abandoned Pandua for Ikdala fort. Delhi army attacked, defeated but Firoz didn’t capitalize. Returned Delhi September 1, 1354 without annexing Bengal despite general Tatar Khan’s insistence.
Reasons for humiliating retreat: Shams-e-Siraj Afif: Moved by besieged fort women’s cries. Later writers: Rainy season difficulties fear. Whatever, Thomas right: Only weakness acceptance.
1359-60 CE: Second Bengal attempt; pretext. Eastern Bengal Fakhruddin Mubarak Shah’s son-in-law Zafar Khan fled sea route to court, complained ruler’s tyranny, sought aid. Encouraged by valiant Shamsuddin Ilyas death. 1359 CE abandoned treaties/friendship, huge army against son Sikandar Shah. Halted Gomti bank Zafarabad six months; founded Jaunpur memory cousin Fakhruddin Jauna Khan (Muhammad bin Tughlaq).
Post-rainy, marched Bengal. Ignored Sikandar’s friendship messages; Sikandar fled Ikdala mud fort. Delhi besieged. Bengal defended bravely till rainy. Flood against besiegers. Soon treaty Sikandar favor. Shams Siraj Afif: Zafar Khan Sonargaon ruler, promised annual elephants. Firoz gave jewel crown, 80,000 tanka, 500 Arab/Turkish horses. Second campaign futile like first; showed weak/vacillating nature.
Attack on Odisha
1360 CE: Marched Jajnagar (modern Odisha). Ruler Rai Bhanudeva III fled Telangana; sultan destroyed Puri Jagannath temple, looted. Ainul Mulk: ‘Aim break idols, spill infidel blood, hunt elephants.’ Later Rai submitted elephants, accepted suzerainty; Firoz returned gifts.
Attack on Kangra
Soon after Delhi return 1361 CE: Attacked Nagarkot fort (conquered Muhammad 1337 CE, independent late reign). Besieged six months. Forced treaty. Firoz visited Jwalamukhi temple; translated 300 Sanskrit library books various subjects to Persian verse ‘Dalail-e-Firozshahi’ by court poet Khalid Khani.
Sindh Conquest
1362-63 CE: Resumed Sindh conquest abandoned ~11 years prior Muhammad death. 90,000 horsemen, many infantry, 480 elephants, thousand boats to Jam’s capital Thatta. Jam Babaniya faced 20,000 horsemen, 4 lakh infantry. Lost way; army stuck Kutch plains (Run) ~6 months; infectious animal disease wiped ~3/4 army. When wazir Khan-e-Jahan Maqbul sent new powerful army Delhi aid, attacked Sindhis, forced treaty. Jam Banbhina accepted suzerainty, annual lakhs tanka tribute. Like Bengal/Sindh campaigns, lacked military skill/strategy.
No Mongol invasions Firoz reign. Yahya: Borders secure vast armies/well-wishers. But no effort recover Deccan Vijayanagara, Bahmani, Madura. Officials advised Daulatabad attack; Shams-e-Siraj Afif: Saddened, eyes tearful; said vowed never fight Islam followers. Actually no expansion campaigns. All merely preserve empire.
Suppression of Rebellions
Late reign 1370 CE: Suppressed Etawah Hindu zamindars. Bundelkhand Katehar king Kharku murdered Badaun governor Syed Muhammad, rebelled; sultan personally suppressed but Kharku escaped Kumaun hills. Said Firoz forcibly converted 23,000 Hindus.
Administrative Policies and Reforms of Firoz Tughlaq
Firoz’s rule benevolent despotism. First sultan prioritized public material progress over conquests/wars; detailed ruler duties. Success credit prime minister ‘Khan-e-Jahan Maqbul’.
Revival of Jagirdari System
Perhaps please nobles/officials, revived jagirdari (salary as jagir) abolished Alauddin, encouraging izaredari. Khams 4/5 to soldiers again; hereditary posts. Outwardly strengthened new sultan but ultimately encouraged decentralization, damaged central authority.
Feudal-Based Military Organization
Army feudal basis. Perhaps permanent soldiers got sufficient jagirs. Temporary (ghair wajh, ghair vaj) cash treasury. Majority neither: Assigned province revenue shares transferable. Caused massive corruption, discipline loss. Afif: ‘Sultan gave soldier 1 tanka bribe pass horse in arj.’ 80-90 thousand cavalry, including nobles’ servants extra. Hereditary military/civil posts. Merit ignored for lineage harmful. Sultan’s unwise generosity affected army efficiency.
Primacy to Ulema
Perhaps first Delhi sultan strictly followed Islamic rules, gave ulema primacy administration. Re-established religious influence justice; muftis interpreted laws. Reduced mutilation/torture punishments. Stopped death Muslim criminals. Autobiography ‘Futuhat-e-Firozshahi’: ‘Great merciful God inspired stop unjust Muslim killings.’ V.A. Smith: ‘Reform ending mutilation/torture praiseworthy; largely followed.’
Revenue Reforms
~37-year reign comparatively happy for public. Abolished 24 oppressive/unjust taxes for people-friendly revenue; allowed Quran-approved four: ‘kharaj’ (1/10 produce), ‘zakat’ (2.5% wealthy donation poor/disabled), ‘jizya’ (non-Muslims), ‘khums’ (1/5 war booty/mines). Alauddin/Muhammad took 4/5 khums; Firoz Quran-wise 4/5 soldiers, 1/5 self. First separated jizya kharaj. Consulted ulema, new irrigation tax (sharb) 10% produce.
First sultanate toured provinces, inspected revenue records; appointed Khwaja Hisamuddin prepare income details. Six years: Khalsa land annual 6 crore 85 lakh tanka; Doab 80 lakh. Lagaan likely 1/5-1/3 produce. Abandoned scientific measurement-based revenue. Warned officials demand only fixed; punished excess. Benevolent: Reclaimed barren land, income religious/educational works.
Irrigation System
Dug canals for agriculture: Shams-e-Siraj Afif two—Sutlej, Yamuna; Yahya (Sirhind resident, more canal knowledge) four: Sutlej to Ghaggar 96 miles; Mandvi/Sirmour hills to Hansi, Arasani (founded Hisar Firoza); Ghaggar to Sarsuti (Saraswati fort) to Hirni Khera; Yamuna to Firozabad onward. Appointed skilled engineers supervision. 50 dams rivers irrigation/transport; 160 wells. Beneficial trade/agriculture results. Afif: Sultan’s benevolent policies prospered/satisfied ryots. Homes full grain, wealth, horses, goods. Abundant gold-silver; no woman without jewels, home without beds/bedding. Wealth abundance; all comfortable.
Urban and Public Works
Addicted founding new cities/renaming old. Formed public works department. Founded Jaunpur (Yamuna bank), Fatehabad, Hisar, Firozpur near Badaun, Firozabad 10 miles capital. Firozabad favorite; Jaunpur memory cousin Fakhruddin Jauna Khan. Bengal campaigns: Renamed Ikdala Azadpur, Pandua Firozabad.
Built ~13 mausoleums/madrasas, 4 mosques, 3 palaces, 200 caravan sarais, 5 reservoirs, 5 hospitals, 100 graves, 10 bathhouses, 10 monasteries, 100 bridges. Malik Ghazi Shahna chief architect, aided Abdul Haq; disciple Ahmad. Firoz: ‘Among Allah’s gifts to humble servant, desire public buildings. Built mosques, colleges, monasteries for scholars/elderly/pious worship Allah, aid merciful builder.’ Repaired Iltutmish madrasa, Hauz-e-Khas; transplanted Ashoka pillars from Khizrabad/Meerut to Delhi.
Gardening interest: 1200 new gardens near Delhi; replanted Alauddin’s 30 old. Wolseley Haig: Construction passion rivaled Roman Augustus if not greater.
Coin Circulation
Circulated many copper-silver mix coins ‘addha’ (half jitlal), ‘bisw’ (quarter). ‘Shashgani’ (6 jitlal) inscribed own name with son/heir ‘Fateh Khan’. Though Afif links shashgani specially Firoz, Ibn Battuta mentions Muhammad era. Inscribed caliph name, self caliph deputy.
Slave Department Establishment
Fond slaves; number reached 180,000. Created separate ‘Diwan-e-Bandagan’ department. Jagirdars gifted slaves, reduced taxes accordingly. Afif: Ordered jagirdars/officials capture slaves in wars, select good for court. Banned slave export; arranged handicraft training. 36 royal factories employ slaves.
Welfare Works
‘Diwan-e-Khairat’ for poor Muslims, especially daughters’ marriages. ‘Rozgar-Daftar’ employment bureau unemployed Muslims. ‘Dar-ul-Safa’ state hospital Delhi free treatment poor/helpless.
Education Promotion
Special interest education. Founded many maktabs, monasteries, madrasas. State grants institutions; scholarships students. Patron Ziauddin Barani, Shams-e-Siraj Afif. Barani wrote ‘Fatwa-e-Jahandari’, ‘Tarikh-e-Firozshahi’ his time. Self-wrote autobiography ‘Futuhat-e-Firozshahi’. Unknown scholar ‘Sirat-e-Firozshahi’. Translated some 1300 looted Jwalamukhi books to ‘Dalail-e-Firozshahi’ by Ajodhan Khalid Khani (Ayurveda-related). Invented water clock.
Religion and Religious Policy of Firoz Tughlaq
Two Special Patents and Honors from Caliph
Despite Hindu mother, staunch Sunni. Deep devotion Egypt caliph. First Muslim India history self caliph representative. Coins own name with caliph. First six years: Two special ruling patents, honor robes. Generally against showy display but maintained grand court like predecessors; Afif: Specially decorated Eid/Shab-e-Barat; separate official team.
Made religious rules differing predecessors. Encouraged diverse subjects embrace own peaceful religion. Gave jagirs, titles, honors Hindus conversion. Called Hindu public ‘zimmi’; first jizya Brahmins. Self-wrote: ‘Encouraged infidel subjects accept Muhammad’s religion.’ Historians: Fanatic, intolerant; precursor Sikandar Lodi, Aurangzeb.
Last Days of Firoz Tughlaq
Last days sorrowful. July 23, 1374 eldest son Fateh Khan death shocked. 1387 second son Khan-e-Jahan died. Aging, judgment failed; efficiency declined. Involved eldest living son Muhammad Khan administration aid but Muhammad incompetent; indulged pleasures not management. Civil war started lifetime. Muhammad fled Sirmour hills. Firoz gave grandson (late Fateh Khan son) Tughlaq Khan Muhammad’s royal title. Died September 20, 1388 CE.
Evaluation of Firoz Shah Tughlaq
Contemporary Indian writers unanimously praise. Barani/Afif: After Nasiruddin Mahmud, no sultan just, compassionate, courteous, God-fearing or builder like Firoz. Heart full love/benevolence. Peace/prosperity reign. Henry Elliot/Elphinstone called ‘Akbar of Sultanate era’.
But ‘Firoz not even hundredth great-hearted broad-minded Emperor Akbar, who preached peace, goodwill, tolerance all sects/religions public interest platform.’ Thoughtless generosity/concessions ultimately contributed Delhi Sultanate fall. Reviving jagirdari encouraged decentralization, hurt state integrity. ‘Fate’s cruel play: Qualities made Firoz popular responsible Delhi Sultanate weakness.’ Reforms failed win most Hindus’ trust.
Later Tughlaq Sultans
Abu Bakr and Nasiruddin Muhammad Shah
After Firoz death, grandson (Fateh Khan son) Tughlaq Khan ascended 1389 CE as Ghiyasuddin Tughlaq Shah II. Luxurious nature victim conspiracy officials/nobles February 19, 1389. Delhi nobles declared cousin Zafar Khan son Abu Bakr sultan. Meanwhile Firoz son Nasiruddin Muhammad declared self sultan Samana April 24, 1369.
Prince Nasiruddin Muhammad attacked Delhi August 1390, deposed Abu Bakr, became ‘Nasiruddin Muhammad Shah’. Heavy drinking; died January 1394. Son ‘Humayun’ ascended ‘Alauddin Sikandar Shah’; died six weeks.
Nasiruddin Mahmud
Next: Muhammad younger son Nasiruddin Mahmud last Tughlaq sultan. Rival Fateh Khan son Nasrat Shah tried Delhi throne 3-4 years Firozabad.
Establishment of Independent Jaunpur State
Actually all Firoz successors weak/incompetent. Mere puppets principle-less nobles encouraging civil wars self-interest. Result: Most Muslim governors/Hindu chiefs ignored sultanate authority. Hijra Malik Sarwar (flattered Mahmud Tughlaq, took Malik-us-Sharq title) founded independent Jaunpur.
Timur’s Invasion (1398 CE)
Timur invaded Delhi 1398 CE when both Nasrat Shah/Mahmud Tughlaq fled. Stayed 15 days; appointed Khizr Khan governor conquered provinces; left. Timur’s invasion accelerated Tughlaq Empire disintegration. After Timur, Nasrat Shah (hidden Doab) tried Delhi 1399 with some nobles but defeated by Mallu Iqbal, fled; later murdered.
With Mallu Iqbal aid, Mahmud (sheltered Dhar) re-ascended. Said Delhi Sultanate shrunk to Palam. November 12, 1405 Mallu Iqbal died fighting Khizr Khan (Multan, Dipalpur, upper Sindh governor). With Afghan noble Daulat Khan Lodi aid, weak Mahmud nominal rule ~20 years; died February 1413 Kaithal; Tughlaq Dynasty ended.
Reasons for Fall of Tughlaq Dynasty
Tughlaq Dynasty (1320-1414 CE) major Delhi Sultanate house founded Ghiyasuddin Tughlaq. Main rulers: Ghiyasuddin, Muhammad bin Tughlaq, Firoz Shah Tughlaq. Fall mainly post-Firoz death (1388 CE); peaked Timur invasion (1398 CE). Multi-dimensional causes: Administrative weaknesses, economic crisis, military failures, rebellions, external invasions.
Muhammad bin Tughlaq’s Failed Policies (Foundation Internal Weaknesses)
Learned but ambitious/impractical plans shook sultanate:
Capital Transfer (Daulatabad Plan): 1327 CE Delhi to Daulatabad (Devagiri) south control. Immense public suffering—millions walked, thousands died. Economy ruined trade/agriculture hit. Revoked 1335 CE but damage done.
Token Currency Experiment: 1329-30 CE copper equal gold-silver ruined system. Forgery rose, trade stopped, treasury empty. Economic instability burden later rulers.
Excessive Tax Hikes and Military Campaigns: Unnecessary Khorasan/Karachil spending (lakhs tankas) emptied treasury. Doab tax farmer revolts sparked Bengal/Sindh independence demands.
Policies bred discontent; provincial governors rebelled (Bengal independent 1338 CE). Sultanate weakened post-death.
Firoz Shah Tughlaq’s Weak Policies
Some reforms (irrigation canals) but long-term harmful:
Military Weakness: Abandoned campaigns; jizya religious tax but hereditary army. Recruitment loyalty over merit; inefficient. Bengal/Sindh failures.
Economic Exploitation and Corruption: Allowed iqta abuse; jagirdars arbitrary taxes. Expanded slavery (180,000) caused inefficiency. Good irrigation but tax waivers/misuse weakened economy.
Religious Intolerance: Increased jizya Hindus, destroyed temples; discontent, rebellions (Gujarat, Katehar). Succession wars post-death. Sons/grandsons weak; central authority loose.
Succession Wars and Internal Strife
Post-1388: Ghiyasuddin Tughlaq II, Abu Bakr Shah, Nasiruddin Muhammad Shah weak. Amirs/ulema influence rose; fought power. 1394 Nasiruddin Mahmud unstable reign. Provinces Jaunpur, Gujarat, Malwa, Khandesh independent (Jaunpur: Khwaja Jahan founded Sharqi). Multan, Dipalpur rebellions local chiefs rise; Delhi nominal.
External Invasion: Timur’s Attack (1398 CE)
Final blow Mongol Timur Lang:
Attacked weak sultanate. 1398 Delhi battle Nasiruddin Mahmud defeated. Timur looted city, massacred lakhs, took treasury. Delhi economy/population destroyed. Result: Last Tughlaq Mahmud fled; sultanate fragmented.
Other Contributing Causes
Provincial independence: South Vijayanagara/Bahmani rise outside Tughlaq control. Famines/plagues (1330s) weakened public. Caste policies/taxes heightened Hindu-Muslim tension, fueled rebellions.
Tughlaq fall gradual: Started Muhammad impractical policies, grew Firoz inaction, ended Timur invasion. Ended Delhi Sultanate centralization; Sayyid/Lodi rise. Symbol medieval India power decentralization; internal weaknesses invite external threats. Historical evidence clear: Rulers’ personal mistakes/administrative failures main responsible.
