The establishment of the Delhi Sultanate was a pivotal event in Indian history. As a result of the religious and political changes following the rise of Islam in Arabia and Central Asia, expansionist activities were encouraged, leading to the foundation of the Delhi Sultanate. The Delhi Sultanate period spanned from 1206 CE to 1526 CE. Over these 320 years, Muslim rule dominated India. The Delhi Sultanate was governed by five dynasties:
- Mamluk or Slave Dynasty (1206-1290 CE)
- Khilji Dynasty (1290-1320 CE)
- Tughlaq Dynasty (1320-1414 CE)
- Sayyid Dynasty (1414-1451 CE)
- Lodi Dynasty (1451-1526 CE)
The Slave Dynasty, also known as the Mamluk Dynasty, was a medieval Indian royal lineage. Its founder and first ruler was Qutbuddin Aibak, appointed by Muhammad Ghori to secure his Indian territories after defeating Prithviraj Chauhan. This dynasty ruled Delhi for about 84 years (1206-1290 CE) and laid the foundations of Islamic governance in India. Prior to this, no Muslim ruler had established long-term dominance in India. During this period, Mongol invasions under Genghis Khan also targeted India’s northwestern regions.
Nomenclature of the Dynasty
The early Turkish sultans are known by various names, such as Slave Dynasty or Mamluk Dynasty. The three sultans of Delhi—Qutbuddin, Iltutmish, and Balban—had been slaves, hence the name Slave Dynasty. Iltutmish and Balban were freed from slavery before becoming rulers. Some historians call it the Mamluk Dynasty, where “Mamluk” refers to slaves born to free parents. The term Mamluk was also used for slaves employed in military service rather than domestic duties, but this nomenclature seems inappropriate. Another name is the Early Turkish Dynasty, but this too is unsuitable since no subsequent Turkish dynasty was established in India. The rulers or founders of this dynasty were slaves, not kings or princes. Therefore, “Slave Dynasty” is the most appropriate term.
Qutbuddin Aibak: Founder of the Slave Dynasty
Qutbuddin Aibak was the first sultan of the Delhi Sultanate and the founder of the Slave Dynasty. He ruled for only four years. He was a highly talented soldier who, as a slave, assisted Sultan Muhammad Ghori in military campaigns and eventually became the Sultan of Delhi.
Early Life of Qutbuddin Aibak
Qutbuddin Aibak was born in Turkestan and belonged to a Turkish tribe. His parents were Turks. “Aibak” is a Turkish word meaning “Lord of the Moon.” Slave trade was prevalent in Turkestan at the time. Slaves were educated and trained to be sold to kings as a profitable business. Young Qutbuddin fell victim to this system. In childhood, he was separated from his family and taken to the Nishapur market by a merchant, where Qazi Fakhruddin Aziz Kufi (a descendant of Imam Abu Hanifa) bought him. The Qazi raised Aibak like his own son and provided training in archery and horsemanship. Abdul Aziz gave the boy Qutub military and religious education alongside his own son.
Qutbuddin Aibak was talented from childhood and quickly mastered all arts. He learned to recite the Quran in a melodious voice, earning the title “Quran Khan” (Quran reciter). After the Qazi’s death, his sons sold Aibak to a merchant who took him to Ghazni, where Muhammad Ghori purchased him. This marked a new chapter in Aibak’s life, culminating in him becoming the Sultan of Delhi. This talented soldier assisted Sultan Muhammad Ghori in military expeditions as a slave and rose to become Delhi’s sultan.
Through his honesty, intelligence, and loyalty, Qutbuddin earned Muhammad Ghori’s trust. Impressed by Aibak’s courage, duty, and loyalty, Ghori appointed him Amir-e-Akhur (head of the royal stables).
Division of Aibak’s Reign
Qutbuddin Aibak’s reign can be divided into three parts: 1191-1206 CE as a period of military activities, where Aibak participated in Ghori’s campaigns and governed conquered territories. From 1206-1208 CE, Aibak served as Malik and Sipahsalar in Ghori’s Indian sultanate. But from 1208-1210 CE, Aibak spent most of his time shaping the Delhi Sultanate.
As Ghori’s aide, Aibak participated in several military campaigns. In 1192 CE, Aibak rendered crucial service in the Second Battle of Tarain, pleasing Muizzuddin, who returned to Ghazni and left the conquered Indian territories under his trusted slave Qutbuddin Aibak. In the next two years, Aibak captured Meerut, Baran, and Koil (modern Aligarh) in the Upper Doab. The powerful Dor-Rajputs resisted Aibak, but surprisingly, the Gahadavals, who faced the greatest threat from Turkish invasions, neither aided the Dor-Rajputs nor attempted to expel the Turks from the region.
Muizzuddin Muhammad Ghori returned to India in 1194 CE. With 50,000 cavalry, he crossed the Yamuna and advanced toward Kannauj. Near Chandawar in Etawah district, a fierce battle occurred in 1194 CE between Muizzuddin Ghori and Gahadaval ruler Jaichand, where Jaichand was defeated and killed. The battles of Tarain and Chandawar laid the foundation for the Turkish empire in northern India. Aibak conquered Koil (Aligarh) in 1195 CE. In 1196 CE, the Meos of Ajmer rebelled, with Gujarat’s ruler Bhimdev involved. The Meos endangered Qutbuddin’s life, but news of Muhammad Ghori’s arrival lifted the siege, saving Aibak.
In 1197 CE, Aibak looted Gujarat’s capital Anhilwara and punished ruler Bhimdev II with immense wealth. In 1202-03 CE, he defeated Chandel king Paramardidev, capturing Kalinjar, Mahoba, and Khajuraho, strengthening his position. In 1205 CE, he assisted Muhammad Ghori against the Khokhars. Around this time, Ghori’s another aide, Bakhtiyar Khilji, conquered Bengal and Bihar.
By 1206 CE, at Muhammad Ghori’s death, the Turks had expanded their rule to Lakhnauti in Bengal, Ajmer and Ranthambore in Rajasthan, borders of Ujjain in the south, and Multan and Uch in Sindh through dedicated efforts.
Aibak’s Ascension to the Throne
Before his death, Muhammad Ghori made no announcement about his successor. He trusted his Turkish slaves more than his royal family. Among Ghori’s slaves, besides Aibak, Ghiyasuddin Mahmud, Tajuddin Yaldoz, Nasiruddin Qubacha, and Ali Mardan were prominent. Ghori had given Aibak the title of “Malik,” but not made him the chief of all sardars.
Muhammad Ghori had no sons, so after his death, the people of Lahore invited his representative Qutbuddin Aibak to rule Lahore. Aibak arrived in Lahore and was coronated in 1206 CE. After ascending the throne, Aibak did not assume the title of sultan and satisfied himself with “Malik and Sipahsalar.” He neither issued coins in his name nor had the khutba read. The reason was jealousy from other slave sardars Yaldoz and Qubacha. Later, Muhammad Ghori’s successor Ghiyasuddin Muhammad accepted Aibak as sultan, and Aibak was freed from slavery in 1208 CE.
Aibak’s Problems and Solutions
Upon ascending the throne, Aibak faced both external and internal problems. Although the Turks had trampled areas up to Bengal, their supremacy was still doubtful. First, Aibak had to deal with efforts by deposed rulers, especially Rajput sardars in Rajasthan, Bundelkhand, and nearby areas like Bayana and Gwalior, to regain their former territories. Second, some Turkish amirs tried to establish independent powers. After Bakhtiyar Khilji’s death in Bengal, Ali Mardan declared independence and refused to accept Aibak’s suzerainty. Thus, Lakhnauti and Bihar tried to free themselves from Delhi’s control. Strong separatist tendencies existed in Multan and Sindh. In Lahore, Aibak took power as Muizzuddin’s representative, while Ghori’s another slave Qubacha established control over Multan and Uch, and Yaldoz attempted to control Punjab.
Aibak’s Achievements
Marital Alliances
Aibak confronted all these problems boldly. This is why Qutbuddin’s reign was spent entirely in wars. To pacify Muhammad Ghori’s other successors like Ghiyasuddin Muhammad, Tajuddin Yaldoz, and Nasiruddin Qubacha, Aibak used marital alliances. He married Tajuddin Yaldoz’s (ruler of Ghazni) daughter and his sister to Nasiruddin Qubacha (ruler of Multan and Sindh). He married his daughter to his slave Iltutmish to strengthen his position. These marital alliances reduced the threat of rebellion from Yaldoz and Qubacha.
Founder of the Turkish State
Later, Ghori’s successor Ghiyasuddin accepted Aibak as sultan and presented him with a throne, umbrella, royal banner, and naqqara in 1208 CE. Thus, Aibak became an independent ruler and founder of the Turkish state.
Aibak’s Conquests
Using the Doab as a base, the Turks began attacking surrounding areas. After Ghori’s death, Aibak reconquered independent Badaun and appointed Iltutmish as its administrator. Due to his untimely death, Aibak could not reclaim Kalinjar and Gwalior. At this time, he ruled independent Indian territories as a sovereign ruler.
Evaluation of Aibak
Aibak was known as “Lakh Baksh” (giver of lakhs) for his generosity and charitable nature. Historian Minhaj called him “Hatim II” due to his philanthropy. According to Ferishta, only a charitable person was given the title Aibak at that time. In childhood, Aibak memorized Quranic chapters and recited them melodiously, earning the name Quran Khan. His court patronized scholars Hasan Nizami and Fakhr-e-Mudabbir. Hasan Nizami composed “Taj-ul-Masir.”
Aibak was interested in literature and architecture. He built Quwwat-ul-Islam Mosque in Delhi on the site of a Vishnu temple and Adhai Din Ka Jhonpra in Ajmer on a Sanskrit school site. Credit for initiating the construction of Qutub Minar, in memory of Sheikh Khwaja Qutbuddin Bakhtiyar Kaki, goes to Qutbuddin Aibak. Four years into his reign, in 1210 CE, Aibak died from a fall from a horse while playing polo in Lahore. His tomb is in Lahore.
Aram Shah (1210-1211 CE)
Due to sudden death, Qutbuddin Aibak could not choose a successor. Thus, Lahore’s Turkish officials declared Qutbuddin Aibak’s disputed son Aram Shah sultan in Lahore in 1210 CE. It is doubtful if he was Aibak’s son; scholars believe he was Aibak’s favorite, not son. Abdullah Wassaf wrote that Qutbuddin had no sons. According to Abul Fazl, Aram Shah was Qutbuddin’s brother. Historian Minhaj-us-Siraj wrote that Lahore’s amirs placed Aram Shah on the throne only to maintain peace and order. Aram Shah assumed the title “Muzaffar Sultan Mahmud Shah” and issued coins in his name. But Aram Shah lacked sultan qualities. The sultanate’s situation was critical, and handling it was difficult for Aram Shah.
Delhi’s amirs invited Badaun’s iqta holder Iltutmish, Aibak’s son-in-law and a capable talented slave, to the Delhi throne. Iltutmish marched from Badaun to Delhi with his army. The amirs welcomed Iltutmish. In January 1211 CE, Iltutmish defeated Aram Shah in the Battle of Jud and captured Delhi. Thus, Aram Shah ruled for only six months.
Shamsuddin Iltutmish (1210-1236 CE)
Iltutmish was a prominent ruler of the Slave Dynasty in the Delhi Sultanate. His full name was Shamsuddin Iltutmish. He strengthened the foundations of the Delhi Sultanate. He was a Turk from the Ilbari tribe, and his father Islam Khan was the tribe’s chief. Jealous brothers sold him to a Bukhara merchant. From the Bukhara merchant, Jamaluddin bought Iltutmish, and then Aibak purchased him.
Aibak was highly impressed by Iltutmish’s qualities. He called him his son. He married one of his three daughters to him, making him Aibak’s son-in-law. Impressed by Iltutmish’s efficiency against the Khokhars, Muhammad Ghori granted him the important post of “Amir-ul-Umara.” At Qutbuddin’s death, he was Badaun’s governor. Due to sudden death, Qutbuddin Aibak could not choose a successor. Lahore’s Turkish officials placed Qutbuddin Aibak’s disputed son Aram Shah on Lahore’s throne, but due to opposition from Delhi’s Turkish sardars and citizens, Qutbuddin Aibak’s son-in-law Iltutmish, then Badaun’s governor, was invited to Delhi. A clash occurred between Aram Shah and Iltutmish near Jud near Delhi, where Aram Shah was captured and later killed, thus starting the Ilbari dynasty’s rule after the Aibak dynasty.
Iltutmish’s Early Problems
Upon ascending Delhi’s throne, Iltutmish faced the following problems:
Opposition from Turkish Sardars
After obtaining the sultan position, Iltutmish faced many difficulties. From coronation, many Turkish amirs opposed Iltutmish. Qutbi and Muizzi amirs were eager to remove Iltutmish from the throne and sit themselves. Iltutmish first faced rebellion from “Qutbi” (Qutbuddin Aibak’s era sardars) and “Muizzi” (Muhammad Ghori’s era sardars).
Iltutmish’s Rivals
Ghori’s two other slaves, Tajuddin Yaldoz and Nasiruddin Qubacha, were Iltutmish’s strong rivals. Yaldoz considered Delhi part of Ghazni and tried to merge it, while Aibak and then Iltutmish considered themselves independent. Qubacha had strengthened his position in Punjab and surrounding areas.
At this time, Mongol invasions diverted Iltutmish’s attention from Qubacha, but later he defeated Qubacha in a battle. After Genghis Khan’s invasion, Iltutmish reconquered Bihar and Bengal. Between 1215-1217 CE, Iltutmish fought his two strong rivals—Yaldoz and Nasiruddin Qubacha. In 1215 CE, Iltutmish defeated Yaldoz on the Tarain field. After his defeat, no Ghazni ruler claimed Delhi’s power.
Opposition from Rajput Kings
Hindu Rajput rulers were yearning for independence. Upon Aram Shah’s ascension, the empire’s anarchy benefited Chauhan, Chandel, and Pratihara Rajput kings who became independent and strove to end the Muslim empire.
Disorganized and Weak State
In reality, the empire Qutbuddin Aibak built could not be organized in his short reign. Making such a disorganized and weak empire permanent was a complex challenge for Iltutmish.
Border Security Problem
Iltutmish faced the problem of northwestern border security and the Khokhar tribe’s rebellion even more strongly. The fear of Mongol invader Genghis Khan’s attacks was constantly increasing.
Iltutmish’s Achievements
Iltutmish was a very brave and patient sultan. He was not one to sit back defeated in adverse situations. He quickly and decisively resolved this crisis with firmness and promptness.
Suppression of Amirs
Turkish amir sardars were not ready to accept him as ruler, so Iltutmish first suppressed them and sent them to distant places. Iltutmish first suppressed the rebellions of “Qutbi” (Qutbuddin Aibak’s era sardars) and “Muizzi” (Muhammad Ghori’s era sardars).
Formation of “Turkan-e-Chihalgani”
Not trusting rebellious sardars, Iltutmish formed an organized group of forty capable and intelligent slaves from his loyal and trusted slaves, famous in history as “Turkan-e-Chihalgani” or Chahalgani. This organization is also called “Chargan.” He appointed these sardars to all important administrative posts.
Suppression of Tajuddin Yaldoz
Iltutmish’s strong rival Yaldoz was Ghazni’s ruler. In 1215 CE, the Khwarizm Shah forced him to flee Ghazni. He came to India and seized western Punjab opportunistically. Iltutmish could not tolerate this. On February 15, 1216 CE, a decisive battle occurred again on Tarain field between Iltutmish and his rival sardar Yaldoz, where Iltutmish won, strengthening his hold on Delhi’s throne. Yaldoz was imprisoned in Badaun fort, where he died.
Suppression of Qubacha
Nasiruddin Qubacha was Aibak’s brother-in-law and Ghori’s important slave, so he disliked Iltutmish. Qubacha had strengthened his position in Punjab and surrounding areas. In 1217 CE, Iltutmish attacked Qubacha. Qubacha fled without battle. Iltutmish pursued him to Mansura, defeated him, and seized Lahore from Qubacha. But Qubacha was not fully suppressed, and he retained control over Sindh, Multan, Uch, and Sindh-Sagar Doab.
Later, Qubacha defeated the Khwarizm Shah and increased his power. In 1228 CE, Iltutmish captured Uch and demanded unconditional surrender from Qubacha. Qubacha fled defeated and eventually committed suicide by jumping into the Indus River. Thus, both strong opponents ended.
Victories over Rajputs
During Iltutmish’s time, the Prithu rebellion occurred in Awadh. Iltutmish first conquered Ranthambore in 1210 CE and captured Parmars’ capital Mandor in 1227 CE. In 1231 CE, Iltutmish besieged Gwalior fort and defeated ruler Mangaldev (Malayavarman Dev). His campaigns against Chandels in 1233 CE and against Ujjain and Bhilsa in 1234-35 CE were successful. Thereafter, Iltutmish conquered Kalinjar, Nagaur, Bayana, Ajmer, Chittor, and Gujarat kings. He attacked Nagda’s Guhilots and Gujarat Chalukyas but failed. While going to attack Bayana, Iltutmish fell ill en route and died in April 1235 CE.
Protection of Sultanate from Mongol Invasion
Genghis Khan was a cruel and barbaric Mongol leader from Central Asia. Under Genghis Khan, Mongol invaders pursued Khwarizm Shah’s son Jalaluddin Mangburni to Sindh around 1220-21 CE. He sent a message to Iltutmish not to help Mangburni. To avoid a powerful invader like the Mongols and gain Genghis Khan’s sympathy, Iltutmish politely refused asylum to Jalaluddin Mangburni. In 1228 CE, after Mangburni left India, the Mongol invasion threat subsided. Thus, Iltutmish protected his empire from Mongol invasion through foresight. Finally, Genghis Khan returned without invading India.
Conquest of Bengal
After Qutbuddin Aibak’s death, Ali Mardan declared himself independent sultan in Bengal and assumed “Alauddin” title. Two years later, he died. His son Hisamuddin Iwaz succeeded him. He established independent rule over Bihar, Kamrup, Tirhut, and Jajnagar, assumed “Ghiyasuddin Azam” title, issued coins in his name, and had khutba read.
In 1225 CE, Iltutmish launched a campaign against Bengal’s independent ruler Hisamuddin Iwaz. Iwaz accepted his suzerainty without battle, but rebelled again after Iltutmish returned to Delhi. This time, Iltutmish’s son Nasiruddin Mahmud defeated him in 1226 CE and captured Lakhnauti. After Nasiruddin Mahmud’s death two years later, Malik Ikhtiyaruddin Balka Khilji seized Bengal’s throne. In 1230 CE, Iltutmish suppressed this rebellion. Balka Khilji was killed in the conflict, and Bengal came under Delhi Sultanate again.
Iltutmish’s Cultural Achievements
Legitimate Sultan and Titles
Iltutmish acquired the Delhi Sultanate through his might, not inheritance, so to establish peace and order, he requested a certificate from Baghdad’s Abbasid Caliph Al-Mustansir Billah in 1229 CE confirming him as Delhi’s sultan. In February 1229 CE, the Baghdad Caliph granted Iltutmish an honorific “khilat” and certificate. The Caliph also bestowed “Sultan-e-Azam” (great ruler) title. Thus, the Baghdad Caliph approved Iltutmish as “Sultan-e-Hind” with royal robes. Now, Iltutmish assumed “Nasir Amir ul Mominin” title. As a legitimate ruler, he minted coins in his name and included the Caliph’s name in khutba.
Coinage
Iltutmish was the first Turkish sultan to issue pure Arabic coins. Credit for introducing two important sultanate coins—silver “tanka” (about 175 grains) and copper “jital”—goes to Iltutmish. He started the tradition of inscribing the mint name on coins and mentioned himself as the Caliph’s representative. After Gwalior victory, Iltutmish inscribed glorious words on his coins, such as “mighty sultan,” “sun of empire and religion,” “helper of the leader of the faithful,” etc. Iltutmish introduced the “iqta system” and shifted the capital from Lahore to Delhi.
Construction Works
Besides being a skilled ruler, Iltutmish was a lover of art and learning. In architecture, Iltutmish completed Qutbuddin Aibak’s construction works. Credit for building perhaps India’s first tomb also goes to Iltutmish. He built Badaun’s Jama Masjid and Nagaur’s Atarkin Gate. “Ajmer’s Mosque” was built by Iltutmish. He established a school in Delhi.
Evaluation of Iltutmish
After Slave Dynasty founder Aibak, Iltutmish was among those who strengthened Delhi Sultanate’s foundations. He was a slave’s slave and succeeded in reaching such heights through merit alone. Iltutmish was the first sultan to understand Doab’s economic importance and improve it. Considering Iltutmish the real founder of the Slave Dynasty, Ishwari Prasad writes, “Undoubtedly, Iltutmish was the real founder of the Slave Dynasty. He was the person who organized his master Qutbuddin’s conquests.”
Iltutmish was Delhi’s first sultan who became the legitimate ruler of Delhi Sultanate through merit, victories, and the Caliph’s certificate. The Caliph’s approval helped Iltutmish make the sultan position hereditary and secure his descendants’ rights to Delhi’s throne. Based on this success, it can be said that Iltutmish was the real founder of Muslim sovereignty in India.
In his last days, Iltutmish was worried about succession. His eldest son Nasiruddin Mahmud, ruling Bengal as his representative, died in April 1229 CE. The sultan’s remaining living sons were unfit for governance. Therefore, on his deathbed, Iltutmish appointed his daughter Raziya as successor and convinced his sardars and ulemas.
Ruknuddin Firuz Shah (1236 CE)
Iltutmish had appointed his daughter Raziya Sultan as successor. Most court sardars were displeased with this decision as they considered bowing to a woman against their ego. After Iltutmish’s death, the amirs placed the deceased sultan’s eldest son Ruknuddin Firuz Shah, who had been Badaun’s and briefly Lahore’s ruler during his father’s lifetime, on the throne.
But this choice was unfortunate. Ruknuddin lacked all sultan qualities. Being luxurious and low-taste, he took no interest in governance, hence called a “pleasure-loving creature.” He neglected state affairs and squandered state wealth. Although Ruknuddin Firuz Shah was sultan, the reins of governance were in his mother Shah Turkan’s hands, originally a low-born ambitious Turkish maid. She seized administrative power, while her son Ruknuddin remained immersed in luxuries. Due to Ruknuddin and Shah Turkan’s atrocities, rebellions erupted everywhere. Badaun, Multan, Hansi, Lahore, Awadh, and Bengal began defying central authority. As Ruknuddin left the capital to suppress this rebellion, Raziya Sultan appeared before the public wearing red clothes (red clothes were worn to demand justice then) and sought help against Shah Turkan. Delhi’s sardars were already boiling with discontent due to Queen Mother Shah Turkan’s unnecessary influence.
Before Ruknuddin Firuz Shah entered Delhi, public outrage against the luxurious and careless Ruknuddin reached such heights that the people enthusiastically placed Raziya on Delhi’s throne. Ruknuddin Firuz Shah, who fled to Lokhri for refuge, was captured and killed in 1236 CE. His reign lasted only six months. Thereafter, lacking other options for sultan, Muslims had to hand governance to a woman, and Raziya Sultan became Delhi’s ruler.
Raziya Sultan (1236-1240 CE)
Raziya Sultan (Sultan Jalalat ud-Din Raziya) was Iltutmish’s daughter and the Delhi Sultanate’s first female sultan. Of Turkish origin, Raziya was trained in army leadership and administration like other Muslim princesses for use if needed. She showed undue favor to an Abyssinian slave Jalaluddin Yaqut and gave him the high post of stable master. This angered Turkish sardars, who organized into a small union.
Raziya’s Problems
No task was easy for the young begum. Raziya had to confront not only her brothers but also powerful Turkish sardars and could rule only four years. State vizier Muhammad Junaidi and some other sardars could not tolerate a woman’s rule and gathered opponents against her. Although her reign was short, it had several important aspects. During Raziya’s reign, the conflict between the sultan and Turkish sardars, called “Chihalgani” (forty), began.
Raziya quickly defeated her enemies with cleverness and superior diplomacy. She established authority over Hindustan (northern India) and Punjab, and distant provinces like Bengal and Sindh’s governors accepted her suzerainty. Minhaj Siraj wrote that from Lakhnauti to Deval and Damrila, all maliks and amirs accepted her obedience. At her reign’s start, under a Turk named Nuruddin, some hypocrites from Karamit and Ahmadiya sects attempted organized disturbance, but they were scattered by the royal army, and the rebellion became a gross failure.
Raziya was interested in governance since her father’s time. After taking the throne, against customs, she preferred wearing men’s military coat and turban and later participated in battles without veil. She cared for the army and public with her political wisdom and policies. She became Delhi’s most powerful ruler. Yet, peaceful rule was not in the begum’s fate.
Raziya showed undue favor to an Abyssinian slave Jalaluddin Yaqut and gave him the high post of stable master. Some sources say Raziya and Yaqut were lovers. Others say they were confidants. Ibn Battuta’s claim that her attachment to the Abyssinian was criminal is wrong. Contemporary Muslim historian Minhaj made no such accusation. He only writes that the Abyssinian gained the sultana’s favor through service. Ferishta’s only accusation is that excessive familiarity was seen between the Abyssinian and begum, to the extent that when she was on horseback, he would lift her by arms onto the horse.
Whatever the case, excessive favor to Yaqut naturally caused resentment among Turkish sardars, as Yaqut was not Turkish, and Raziya appointed him stable officer. The sardars disliked the developing intimate relation. Angered, Turkish sardars organized into a small union. Bhatinda’s governor Malik Ikhtiyar-ud-din Altunia rebelled with other provincial governors who rejected Raziya’s suzerainty.
Altunia’s Rebellion
At Raziya Sultan’s reign start, Ikhtiyaruddin Altunia was Bhatinda’s hakim. First, Sirhind’s ruler Ikhtiyaruddin Altunia openly rebelled against Raziya in 1240 CE, secretly fueled by some court sardars. The begum marched with a large army to suppress the rebellion. But in this battle, Ikhtiyaruddin defeated Raziya, rebellious sardars killed Yaqut, and the begum was imprisoned. Raziya was placed under Ikhtiyaruddin Altunia’s protection.
Raziya’s End
Ikhtiyaruddin Altunia did not receive adequate reward from new sultan Bahram Shah for this act. So he released Raziya from prison. Raziya married Altunia to escape this situation, but it proved futile. Ikhtiyaruddin attacked Delhi with a large army to reinstall Raziya. Raziya advanced toward Delhi with husband Altunia, but near Kaithal, Altunia’s supporters deserted him, and on October 13, 1240 CE, Muizzuddin Bahram Shah defeated her. The next day, Raziya and her husband were killed. Thus, after four years’ reign, Raziya begum’s life ended.
Evaluation of Raziya
Raziya had wonderful qualities. Ferishta writes that “she recited Quran with pure pronunciation and handled governance during her father’s lifetime.” As begum, she tried to display her qualities with utmost distinction. Historian Minhaj wrote that “she was a great empress, clever, just, charitable, patron of scholars, dispenser of justice, loving her subjects, proficient in war art, and endowed with all praiseworthy attributes and qualities of kings.” She led armies against enemies herself. Abandoning women’s clothes and veil, she wore armor and men’s headgear. She conducted governance with utmost competence in open court. Thus, she tried to act as king in every possible way. Raziya assumed “Umdat-ul-Niswan” title, meaning exemplary for women. But arrogant Turkish sardars could not tolerate a woman’s rule. They ended her disgustingly. Raziya’s tragic end clarified that conquering superstitions is not always easy. The only female ruler on Delhi’s throne, Raziya, and her favorite Yaqut’s grave is in Rajasthan’s Tonk district’s Dariyashah area.
Muizzuddin Bahram Shah (1240-1242 CE)
After deposing Raziya Sultan, Turkish sardars placed Muizzuddin Bahram Shah on Delhi’s throne. To reduce the sultan’s powers, Turkish sardars created a new post “Naib” or Naib-e-Mumlikat (vizier). The appointee was master of all powers. During Muizzuddin Bahram Shah, Malik Ikhtiyaruddin Etgin was first appointed to this post. To strengthen his position, Etgin married Bahram Shah’s divorced sister. Later, Ikhtiyaruddin Etgin’s power grew so much that he started keeping naubat and elephant like sultan before his palace. The sultan considered this interference in his rights and had him killed. After Etgin’s death, all naib powers went to “Amir-e-Hajib” Badruddin Sanwar Rumi Khan. Due to Rumi Khan plotting the sultan’s murder, he and sardar Saiyyid Tajuddin were killed. These killings caused terrible discontent among amirs and Turkish sardars against the sultan.
At this time, external invasions increased Hindustan’s suffering. In 1241 CE, Mongol invaders reached Punjab’s center, and beautiful Lahore fell into their merciless clutches. Dissatisfied sardars incited the army sent to protect Punjab from Mongols in 1241 CE against Bahram Shah. The army turned back to Delhi, and in May 1241 CE, Turkish sardars captured Delhi and killed Bahram Shah. Turkish sardars made Bahram Shah’s grandson Alauddin Masud the new sultan.
Alauddin Masud (1242-1246 CE)
Alauddin Masud was Ruknuddin Firuz Shah’s grandson and Muizzuddin Bahram Shah’s son. During his time, the naib post went to non-Turkish sardar Malik Qutbuddin Hasan because Turkish sardars dominated other important posts, so the naib post had no special importance. Real authority was with vizier Muhajibuddin, a Tajik (non-Turk) by race. As a result of Turkish sardars’ opposition, this post went to Nizamuddin Abubakr. The “Amir-e-Hajib” post went to Iltutmish’s “forty Turks group” member Ghiyasuddin Balban. During this, Balban also got Hansi’s iqta. In 1245 CE, Mongols captured Uch, but Balban drove them out, increasing his prestige. Remaining Amir-e-Hajib, Balban took real governance authority.
Masud’s rule was comparatively peaceful. No conflicts between sultan and sardars occurred. Finally, Balban conspired with Nasiruddin Mahmud and his mother to remove Alauddin Masud from the throne. He succeeded in June 1246 CE. Balban made Iltutmish’s grandson Nasiruddin Mahmud sultan instead of Alauddin Masud. In reality, this period was Balban’s power-building era.
Nasiruddin Mahmud (1246-1266 CE)
Nasiruddin Mahmud was Iltutmish’s grandson. He ascended Delhi Sultanate’s throne on June 10, 1246 CE. After his ascension, the power struggle between amir sardars and sultan completely ended. Nasiruddin was scholarly and very peaceful. Historian Isami writes about Nasiruddin Mahmud that he could not express any opinion without prior permission from Turkish officials. He did not move hands or feet without Turkish officials’ permission. He was ambitionless and devout. He copied Quran and sold it to earn livelihood. On October 7, 1246 CE, he granted Balban “Ulugh Khan” title and made him “Amir-e-Hajib,” handing full governance burden.
Due to Balban’s closeness to the sultan and growing influence, other Turkish sardars formed a group with Nasiruddin Mahmud’s mother and some Indian Muslims, led by Rehan. He was appointed “Wakil-e-Dar,” but this change did not last long. Turkish sardars could not tolerate Indian Muslim Rehan long. They rejoined Balban. Thus, both opposing armies confronted, but finally, under a compromise, Nasiruddin Mahmud dismissed Rehan from naib post and gave it back to Balban. Rehan was called apostate, power usurper, conspirator, etc. Some time later, Rehan was killed.
Balban’s Peace Establishment
During Nasiruddin Mahmud’s reign, Balban displayed special administrative capability. From 1245 CE to becoming sultan, Balban spent most time suppressing rebellions. In 1259 CE, he negotiated with Mongol leader Hulagu to establish peace in Punjab. He firmly suppressed Hindus’ rebellions in Punjab and Doab, and stopped Mongol invasions. Probably then Balban sought permission from Sultan Nasiruddin Mahmud to use umbrella, and the sultan allowed his own umbrella use. Minhajuddin Siraj, appointed chief qazi during Sultan Nasiruddin Mahmud’s reign, dedicated his book “Tabaqat-e-Nasiri” to him. After Nasiruddin Mahmud’s sudden death in 1266 CE, Balban became successor, as Mahmud had no sons.
Ghiyasuddin Balban (1266-1287 CE)
The Slave Dynasty’s last major sultan, Ghiyasuddin Balban, was originally Sultan Iltutmish’s Turkish slave. Ghiyasuddin Balban’s real name was Bahauddin Balban. His father was a high-ranking sardar of a large tribe. Ghiyasuddin Balban was Ilbari Turk by race. In childhood, Mongols captured him and sold him as slave in Baghdad market. Fate turned such that a person named Khwaja Jamaluddin Basri bought Balban and brought him to Delhi in 1232-33 CE. Sultan Iltutmish bought him after conquering Gwalior in 1233 CE.
Through loyalty and service, Balban progressed continuously, until Sultan Iltutmish included him in “forty slaves group” (Turkan-e-Chihalgani). Some time later, Iltutmish granted him “Khasdar” (sultan’s personal servant) post. During Raziya’s reign, he was appointed “Amir-e-Shikar.” In the power struggle between Raziya Sultan and Bahram Shah, Balban sided with Bahram Shah, resulting in Muizzuddin Bahram Shah granting him “Amir-e-Akhur” post and Rewari and Hansi areas. Similarly, he helped Alauddin Masud Shah remove Bahram Shah, so Masud Shah gave him “Amir-e-Hajib” post and Hansi’s governorship. In 1245 CE, Balban defeated Mongols and captured Uch, increasing both power and prestige. Next year, in the power struggle between Masud Shah and Nasiruddin Mahmud, Balban supported Nasiruddin. After becoming sultan, Nasiruddin Mahmud appointed Balban “Naib-e-Mumlikat” (prime minister) and granted “Ulugh Khan” title. During Nasiruddin, Balban became the center of all state power. In August 1249 CE, Balban married his daughter to Nasiruddin Mahmud. For 20 years, Balban fulfilled “Naib-e-Mumlikat” responsibility. During this, he faced complex problems and was once humiliated, but he neither lost courage nor firm resolve. He progressed toward advancement. He suppressed internal rebellions and foiled external invasions.
Ghiyasuddin Balban
In 1246 CE, Balban suppressed Hindu zamindars’ insolence in Doab. Thereafter, he established control over Kalinjar and Kada provinces. Pleased, in 1249 CE, the sultan married his daughter to him and granted deputy sultan title. In 1252 CE, he campaigned on Gwalior, Chanderi, and Malwa. Due to rivals’ jealousy and enmity, he was deposed for a year, but seeing governance deteriorating, the sultan reluctantly reinstated him. After resuming, he tried to control insolent amirs. In 1255 CE, he suppressed sultan’s stepbrother Qutlugh Khan’s rebellion and stopped Mongol invasion in 1257 CE. In 1259 CE, he destroyed regional rebels.
Conspiracy Against Balban
Successes granted to Balban caused jealousy among a large group of Turkish sardars, who started thinking ways to remove him. They conspired in 1250 CE against Balban and got him deposed. Indian Muslim Imaduddin Rehan was appointed in Balban’s place. Balban accepted losing his post but quietly gathered supporters.
Within two years of deposition, Balban won over some opponents. Now he was ready for power test. It seems Balban contacted Mongols who captured a large Punjab area. Sultan Mahmud had to kneel before Balban’s power and dismissed Rehan. Some time later, Rehan was defeated and killed.
Balban eliminated other opponents through proper-improper means. Now he adopted royal symbol umbrella, but probably considering Turkish sardars’ sentiments, he did not sit on throne. Sultan Mahmud died in 1265 CE. Some historians speculate Balban poisoned the sultan and killed his sons to obtain throne. Although true that Balban’s adopted means were often improper and undesirable, no doubt his ascension started an era of strong central government.
After Nasiruddin Mahmud’s death, Balban donned crown without opposition. He ruled 21 years. As sultan, he displayed intelligence, efficiency, and morality praised profusely by historians. He molded governance system into new framework and tried to make it fundamentally secular. He respected Muslim scholars but did not allow interference in royal works. His justice was impartial and punishment extremely harsh.
Balban’s Achievements
Balban’s policy was not empire expansion but firm belief in empire organization. To achieve this, Balban ended “Turk Forty Group” (Turkan-e-Chihalgani) and prevented Turkish amirs from becoming powerful. He controlled umara class and tried to glorify sultan’s post and prestige. Balban believed in absolute rule. He believed only an absolute ruler could enforce obedience to his wisdom. He told his son Bughra Khan: “Sultan’s post is living symbol of absolutism.”
Balban said sultan’s heart is special treasure of divine grace, hence his existence is unique. He introduced “sijda” (kneeling and bowing head before emperor) and “paibos” (kissing feet). Balban’s personality was so impressive and terrifying that people became senseless seeing him. He reformed army and replaced weak and old commanders with brave young ones. Balban upheld Turk race monopoly, so he decided to remove non-Turks from all high posts.
Balban’s Theory of Kingship
Balban believed the only way to face internal and external threats was enhancing emperor’s honor and power. So he constantly strived for this. At that time, it was believed authority and power were privilege of royal and ancient lineages. Accordingly, Balban announced to strengthen his throne claim that he was descendant of legendary Turk warrior Afrasiab. To strengthen claims of royal descent, Balban presented himself as leader of Turkish sardars. He connected himself to Turani ruler “Afrasiab” mentioned in Firdausi’s Shahnameh. He named his grandsons after famous Central Asian rulers like Kaikhusrau, Kaikubad, etc. Thus, Balban organized his court on Persian system. He was Delhi Sultanate’s first sultan to start non-Islamic practices in court.
Balban believed in racial superiority. So he appointed only nobles in administration. According to his statement, “Whenever I see a low-born man, anger burns my eyes and my hand reaches my sword.” This shows his attitude toward non-Turks. Probably he started accepting only high-born members for high governance posts. Once he refused meeting a big merchant not from high family. Through these strict methods, Balban controlled situation. To impress people with his power, he increased court’s splendor. Whenever he went out, bodyguards with naked swords surrounded him. He ended laughter-jokes in court and to prove his sardars could not equal him, he stopped drinking wine with them. He made “sijda” and “paibos” customs mandatory.
Although many customs adopted by Balban were originally Iranian and considered non-Islamic, no one dared oppose, because when most Islamic empires in Central and West Asia were destroyed by Mongol invasions, Balban and Delhi Sultanate were seen as Islam’s leaders. Balban said “King’s heart is special repository of God’s grace and no one equals him among all mankind.” “A gracious king always remains under God’s protection umbrella.” “King should live such that Muslims approve and praise his every act, word, or activity.” Balban considered sultan “Niyabat-e-Khudai” (God’s deputy on earth) and “Zille Ilahi” (God’s shadow). Balban started Persian-based “Navroz festival.” Toward opponents, Balban followed harsh “iron and blood” policy. Under this, rebels were killed and their wives and children enslaved.
Centralization of Power
Even claiming leadership, family Turkish sardars were not ready to share power with anyone, even family members. One of Balban’s main tasks was ending Chihalgani’s power to strengthen emperor’s. To achieve this, he did not hesitate poisoning relative Sher Khan. But to gain public support and trust, he was impartial in justice. He did not spare even biggest person for defying his authority. Thus, Badaun and Awadh’s governors were severely punished for mistreating slaves.
Organization of Central Army
To confront internal rebellions and Mongols in Punjab, he organized a powerful central army. Balban reorganized military department “Diwan-e-Arz” and freed it from vizier’s control to avoid fund shortage. He appointed Imadulmulk to “Diwan-e-Arz” post. Credit for his organized military system goes to Imadulmulk. He pensioned and retired soldiers unfit for service, as most were Turks who came to Hindustan with Iltutmish. They opposed Balban’s step, but he ignored them. To reduce Turk influence, he made Persian-based “sijda” and “paibos” mandatory.
Establishment of Spy Department
Balban established spy department to get prior information on conspiracies and rebellions in state. Balban personally appointed these spies and provided ample funds. No spy met any courtier or bribed. If any spy failed duty, he was harshly punished. Balban deployed spies in every department for all state information.
Measures for Frontier Security
To prevent Mongol invasions, Balban built strong forts in frontier areas and appointed brave warriors. He built a row of forts on northwestern border province and stationed large armies in each. After some years, he divided northwestern border into two parts. Lahore, Multan, and Dipalpur area to Prince Muhammad, and Samana, Kuch to Bughra Khan. Each prince had a powerful army of about 18,000 cavalry.
Suppression of Bengal Rebellion
During his reign, upon news of Bengal’s Turk rebellion where governor Tughril Khan declared independence, Balban sent Awadh’s governor Amin Khan, but he returned unsuccessful. Angered, Balban had him killed and hung his head on Ayodhya’s gate, and personally suppressed the rebellion harshly. Bengal’s then capital Lakhnauti was called “city of rebellion.” Credit for capturing and killing Tughril goes to Malik Muqaddir. Since capturing Tughril was difficult before, pleased with Muqaddir’s success, Balban granted him “Tughrilkush” (Tughril slayer) title and appointed son Bughra Khan as Bengal’s governor. He terrorized Mewat, Doab, and Katehar rebels.
Establishment of Peace in Doab and Punjab
After Iltutmish’s death, law and order deteriorated. Roads in Ganga-Yamuna Doab and Awadh were bad and unsafe due to robbers’ fear, making eastern contact difficult. Some Rajput zamindars built forts here and declared independence. Mewatis dared loot areas around Delhi. Balban suppressed these elements harshly. Robbers were chased and barbarically killed. Rajputs’ forts around Badaun were demolished, forests cleared, and Afghan soldiers’ settlements built to secure roads and crush Rajput zamindars’ rebellions immediately. Besides, Balban suppressed Mewati and Katehar rebellions and established peace in Doab and Punjab. Thus, after consolidating power, Balban assumed grand title “Zille Ilahi.”
In 1286 CE, Balban’s elder son Muhammad was killed fighting a large Mongol army. Unable to bear beloved son Muhammad’s death shock, Balban died on January 1, 1287 CE at 80. Famous poet Amir Khusrau, named “Tuti-e-Hind” (Parrot of India), and Amir Hasan Dehlavi started literary life during Prince Muhammad’s time.
Balban’s Successors
Bughra Khan
Before death, Balban called second son Bughra Khan from Bengal intending to appoint successor, but Bughra Khan was comfort-loving. He did not accept succession despite father’s declaration and quietly returned to Bengal. He declared Bengal independent. Bughra Khan was great music lover. He spent much time with singers etc. Thereafter, Balban chose grandson (Muhammad’s son) Kaikhusrau as successor.
Kaikubad
Before death, Balban appointed Kaikhusrau successor. But Delhi’s kotwal Fakhruddin, after Balban’s death, through diplomacy gave Kaikhusrau Multan’s governorship and placed 17-18 year old Kaikubad on Delhi’s throne. Kaikubad was Sultan Balban’s grandson and elder son Muhammad’s son.
Fakhruddin’s son-in-law Nizamuddin through intrigue immersed sultan in luxuries and became “naib” himself, acquiring all sultan’s powers. To free from Nizamuddin’s influence, Kaikubad poisoned him and made non-Turk sardar Jalaluddin Khilji army chief, angering Turkish sardars. At this time, Mongols under Tamar Khan attacked Samana, and Kaikubad’s army drove them back. But sultanate was internally weak. African traveler Ibn Battuta visiting during Kaikubad called his reign a “grand festival.” Turkish sardars were thinking revenge when Kaikubad suffered paralysis. Paralyzed, Kaikubad became completely incapable of administration.
Kayumars
Due to Kaikubad’s paralysis, Turkish sardars declared his three-year-old son Shamsuddin Kayumars sultan. Later, Jalaluddin Firuz Khilji seized opportunity and killed Shamsuddin. After Shamsuddin’s murder, Jalaluddin Firuz Khilji seized Delhi’s throne and founded Khilji Dynasty. Thus, Delhi’s throne outlined by Aibak, established by Iltutmish, and strengthened by Balban went to Khiljis.
Fall of the Slave Dynasty
In 1290 CE, the streets of Delhi were filled with the scent of power change. The Delhi Sultanate’s first dynasty, the Slave Dynasty, born from the sword of Muhammad Ghori’s slave Qutbuddin Aibak, was now breathing its last. The tall minarets of Qutub Minar still touched the sky, witnessing Iltutmish’s greatness, but the young sultan Muizzuddin Kaikubad on the throne had become a mere puppet. Luxury wine flowed in his palace, music tunes echoed, but a storm hovered in the outside world. Ambitious warrior Khilji sardar Jalaluddin Firuz was eager to seize power. In a night’s conspiracy, Kaikubad was killed, and his infant successor Kayumars was removed from throne. Thus, the 84-year Slave Dynasty ended, and the Khilji era dawned.
The fall of the Slave Dynasty was no sudden event but result of years’ weaknesses. Some major reasons for this dynasty’s fall are as follows:
Chain of Weak Successors
The Slave Dynasty’s foundation rested on slaves’ loyalty, but succession problem was always its weakness. Iltutmish was a skilled warrior and administrator. He started “iqta” system, organized army, and stopped Mongol invasions. But after him, his son Ruknuddin Firuz (1236 CE) was dethroned in just six months due to luxury and cruelty. Then Iltutmish’s daughter Raziya Sultan became history’s first Muslim female sultan. She was brave, fought battles herself, but Turkish amirs could not tolerate a female ruler and she fell victim to conspiracy.
Real crisis on Slave Dynasty came after Balban. Balban (1266-1287 CE) adopted iron and blood policy and ruled harshly. He crushed “zamindari” system, drove Mongols, and established Persian customs in court. But on deathbed, he handed throne to grandson Kaikubad, only 17. Balban’s grandson Kaikubad proved diseased and luxurious. He left governance reins to amirs and remained immersed in music and dance in Kilokhri palace. Historian Ziauddin Barani in “Tarikh-e-Firoz Shahi” writes Kaikubad’s body was paralyzed and he was incapable of decisions. Then his three-year-old son Kayumars was placed on throne, but he was sultan in name only.
Internal Strife and Turkish Amirs’ Rebellion
From Iltutmish’s time, Turkish amirs’ group “Chihalgani” or “Chalisa” became power center and caused Slave Dynasty’s fall. After Qutbuddin Aibak’s death (1210 CE), these amirs removed Aram Shah. During Raziya Sultan’s time (1236-1240 CE), these amirs opposed her because she was female and gave high post to favorite Abyssinian slave Yaqut. In 1240 CE Bhatinda battle, Raziya lost, was imprisoned, and eventually killed. This event broke dynasty’s unity.
Balban tried crushing these amirs. He adopted “bloody justice” and killed many Turkish sardars, exiling their families. But this weakened dynasty’s Turkish base. Khilji, Afghan, and other races’ sardars emerged in Turkish amirs’ place. Jalaluddin Khilji, vizier during Balban, took advantage of this weakness. Factionalism, jealousy, and power struggle in court hollowed the dynasty.
Administrative Laxity
Slave Dynasty rulers were experts in war and territorial expansion but proved careless in administration. Iltutmish issued coins and started iqta system, but successors failed. Tax collection was irregular, peasants suffered heavy taxes, sparking rebellions. Balban did military reforms, but army corrupted during Kaikubad. Spy system (barid) weakened, delaying rebellion news. Public was dissatisfied, both Hindu Rajputs and Muslim Sufis unhappy with governance. Luxury emptied treasury, corrupt amirs looted state. This administrative vacuum left state open to internal rebellions.
External Invasions and Border Insecurity
Threat from northwest Mongols constantly loomed. Iltutmish stopped Genghis Khan’s invasion (1221 CE), Balban built forts on borders and stationed army. But during Kaikubad, Mongols attacked again. In 1285 CE, Mongols attacked Lahore, weak sultan could do nothing. Plus, southern Rajput states like Ranthambore, Chittor rebellions fragmented sultanate. Provinces like Bengal and Multan governors became independent. These external pressures broke dynasty’s military power and gave sardars like Jalaluddin opportunity to remove sultan and seize power.
Raziya Sultan’s Tragedy
Raziya’s fall (1240 CE) foreshadowed dynasty’s fall. She was capable, suppressed rebellions, led army. But Turkish amirs rejected her rule calling her “woman.” Rumors spread about her relations with Yaqut. She lost Bhatinda battle, married amir Altunia but still lost and was killed. This event birthed succession fights. Thereafter, sultans always remained amirs’ puppets.
All these reasons combined buried Slave Dynasty in history’s pages. This dynasty sowed seeds of Qutub Minar, Alai Darwaza-like architecture and Indo-Islamic culture, but political instability destroyed it. Historians Ferishta and Barani’s works tell how a slaves’ dynasty rose and fell. If more rulers like Iltutmish or Balban existed, story might differ. But history invited Khiljis and started new era of Delhi Sultanate’s expansion.
