The Rise of the Marathas
The rise of the Marathas is one of the most significant events in medieval Indian history. Representing powerful social and religious movements from the fifteenth to the seventeenth centuries, the Marathas emerged as a formidable political and military power, becoming rivals to the Mughals. Through their valour, they hastened the decline of the Mughal Empire.
In reality, the British acquired their Indian empire not from the Mughals but from the Marathas. Chhatrapati Shivaji Raje Bhosale (1627–1680 CE), during the reign of Aurangzeb, laid the foundation of the Maratha Empire in western India as a national state.
Causes of the Maratha Rise
The emergence of Maratha power in the seventeenth century was not a sudden event. The forces that organised and inspired the Marathas had been active for centuries. Grant Duff compared the Maratha rise to a forest fire in the Sahyadri mountain ranges that suddenly flares up and becomes ferocious. However, Duff’s view is not entirely accurate, as social and religious traditions had been developing in Maharashtra for centuries, contributing significantly to the region’s national organisation and social unity.
The foundation of Maratha power lay in the people of the region, who, united by caste, language, literature, religion, and geography, awakened a sense of nationality and resolved to establish an independent state to secure their freedom.
In essence, the history of the Maratha rise is the story of Hindu nationalism taking shape by exploiting the political weakness of Muslim rulers. All sections of Hindus participated in this movement, and Maratha leaders strove to bring the Delhi Empire under their control and establish a “Hindu Pad Padshahi” (Hindu Empire). In truth, the rise of the Marathas resulted from various circumstances and multiple factors, the culmination of which was the powerful personality of Shivaji, who led the Maratha resurgence.
Geographical Factors
First and foremost, the geography of Maharashtra profoundly shaped the character and history of its people. The region comprises three geographical zones: Konkan, Maval, and Desh. The Maratha country is surrounded on two sides by mountain ranges—the Sahyadri stretching from north to south and the Satpura and Vindhya ranges extending from east to west.
It is protected by the Narmada and Tapti rivers, and its valleys are covered with dense forests. These natural barriers greatly aided the Maratha rise, as they provided numerous easily defensible hill forts. According to Sardesai, “The formidable mountain ranges of the Western Ghats enabled the Marathas to rebel against the Muslims, reassert their nationality against the organised might of the Mughals, and establish their own empire.”
The rugged and infertile soil, uncertain and scanty rainfall, and limited agricultural resources fostered self-reliance, perseverance, courage, and pride among the Marathas. The harsh hilly terrain made its inhabitants industrious and brave. Simplicity was a hallmark of their lives, but nature endowed229 them with cunning and a spirit of vengeance.
The people of these hills possessed innate soldierly qualities and an indomitable love for freedom. Poverty fostered social equality, and they had the strength to withstand natural calamities. Their villages were largely self-sufficient. As Jadunath Sarkar observed, “In such a country, no one could live a life of ease. In ancient Maharashtra, there was no parasitic class.” This geography endowed the Marathas with excellent military qualities, including skill in guerrilla warfare and the ability to surprise enemies.
Religious Factors
The saints of Maharashtra also played a crucial role in the Maratha rise. The Pandharpur movement began in the thirteenth century, with early saints such as Dnyaneshwar, Hemadri, and Chakradhar. These saints instilled religious consciousness and social unity among the people. The movement emphasised the worship of Vitthoba (an incarnation of Krishna), stressed purity of conduct, opposed ritualism, and established the principle of equality of all humankind. It eliminated bitterness between Shaivas and Vaishnavas, fostered religious harmony and unity, and rejected the caste system.
Most importantly, the movement was led by saints from lower castes whose compositions are still sung with great reverence in Maharashtra. Prominent saints such as Eknath, Tukaram, Ramdas (author of Dasbodh), and Vaman Pandit wrote in Marathi, a language accessible to the common people. As a result of the devotional songs composed by these religious reformers, a strong Marathi literature developed in the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries, inspiring the people with noble aspirations.
Thus, literature and language provided another bond of unity to the people of Maharashtra. Through the propagation of ideals such as devotion to God, human equality, and the dignity of labour, the Maratha religious reformers sowed the seeds of renaissance and self-awakening, preparing a spiritual foundation for political objectives that leaders like Shivaji could utilise. Sir Jadunath Sarkar wrote: “Even before Shivaji established political unity in Maharashtra in the seventeenth century, unity of language, race, and way of life had already been achieved. Whatever little remained was completed by Shivaji.”
Social Factors
The people of Maharashtra are naturally liberal and tolerant, with a mixture of Aryan and Dravidian blood. The population also includes a significant proportion of tribal groups such as the Kol and Bhil. This ethnic mixture strengthened Maharashtra. Traditional village panchayats persisted, the land system was based on the ryotwari system, and deshmukhs or desais acted as tax collectors. These autonomous institutions strengthened the spirit of freedom and self-reliance in Maharashtra.
Life in Maharashtra was simple and practical, lacking the complexities of the caste system found in northern India. The teachings of the saints also established social equality. According to Ranade, “Just as Protestant reform swept through Europe in the sixteenth century, religious, social, and literary reform gained momentum in India, particularly in the south, during the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries. This religious movement was progressive rather than rigidly Brahmanical. It opposed ritualistic worship and birth-based varna system while supporting family purity, humanitarianism, and charity.” Social equality made the national movement in Maharashtra possible, as Maratha society was united and organised.
Political Factors
The Bahmani kingdom and the later Nizamshahi and Adilshahi states provided the Marathas with opportunities for political and military training. These Muslim kingdoms could not recruit Muslim immigrants from northern India or Central Asia for administrative and military posts and thus had to rely on local Marathas. Numerous Maratha commanders such as Ghatge, Ghorpade, Jadhav, Nimbalkar, Shinde, Dafle, and Mane held large jagirs before Shivaji. Shivaji’s father, Shahaji Bhosale, was an influential noble in the Ahmednagar state and also wielded considerable power in Bijapur. Thus, even before Shivaji, a class of experienced Maratha officers proficient in administration and warfare had emerged, forming a Maratha aristocracy that resided in forts and maintained private armies with semi-independent authority. All that was needed was a leader to unite this class and establish a national Maratha state—a role Shivaji fulfilled through his genius.
Military Factors
Religion did not influence politics in the south to the same extent as in the north. The Muslim kingdoms of the Deccan had to rely on local Marathas for recruitment. Large numbers of Marathas served as bargirs and silhedars in the armies of Bijapur and Golconda. Malik Ambar had transformed these Maratha soldiers into excellent guerrilla fighters, providing them with military training, developing their natural martial qualities, and organising them into a political force. According to Dr Beni Prasad, the Marathas also learned the art of warfare from Mughal invasions. In reality, the Marathas were born soldiers.
Inspiration from Vijayanagara
The memory of the Vijayanagara Empire continually inspired Maratha rulers. Its establishment had restored Hindu pride in the south. The people of the Deccan first faced invasions under Alauddin Khilji, but when Muhammad Tughlaq attempted to establish Muslim rule in the south, Hindus resisted, leading to the foundation of Vijayanagara (1336 CE) by Harihara and Bukka. Shivaji drew inspiration from this Vijayanagara experiment. His father Shahaji’s jagirs—Bangalore, Kampali, and Kanakgiri—had been centres of the Vijayanagara Empire.
Reaction to Mughal Invasions
Mughal invasions intensified the Maratha spirit of independence. Although Bijapur, Golconda, and Ahmednagar were Muslim states, they were nominally so, as Hindus dominated them. Religious tolerance, social harmony, local character, and linguistic unity had eroded their Islamic identity. When the second wave of Muslim conquest arrived in the form of Mughal invasions, Maharashtra resolved to resist this foreign aggression. New methods and inspiration were needed to counter it. Ranade wrote: “The resistance offered by Bijapur, Golconda, and the Marathas to the Mughals was a timely necessity; otherwise, the history of southern India would have been set back by three hundred years. This task was accomplished by Shivaji.”
Shivaji’s Personality
By the early seventeenth century, the social, religious, and political changes in Maharashtra had practically formed a nation. Contemporary literature reflects this new awakening. Geographical ruggedness had protected Maharashtra’s villages. Hindu culture in the south had not become lifeless as in the north. Mavale and Kunbi soldiers were capable of resisting invasions, but without Shivaji, all this potential would have remained unused. Shivaji provided leadership to the Maratha national organisation, transforming it into a political force. He first proclaimed the ideal of Maratha independence, gave political expression to the emerging Maratha nation, and established an independent Maratha state under his leadership.
Shivaji’s most significant contribution was providing political leadership, granting freedom and swarajya to the Marathas. By assuming the title of Chhatrapati, he established the Maratha state and inspired them with such national consciousness that even a powerful emperor like Aurangzeb was defeated.
Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj
Political Situation in the Deccan
At a time when the Bahmani Sultanate was declining, the Mughal Empire was at its zenith—vast, free from rebellions, and steeped in luxury. Shah Jahan was the emperor, and Prince Aurangzeb was the subahdar of the Deccan. The most powerful successor states of the Bahmani were Bijapur and Golconda. Shivaji’s father, Shahaji, began his career as a horseman in the service of the Sultan of Ahmednagar. Gradually, he acquired many territories and became a king-maker in the final years of the Nizamshahi regime.
Early Life of Shivaji
Shivaji was born to Shahaji Bhosale’s first wife, Jijabai (Rajmata Jijau), on 19 February 1630 CE at the hill fort of Shivneri near Junnar, north of Pune. Some historians suggest alternative dates: 10 April 1627, 20 April 1627, or 9 March 1630.
Shahaji Bhosale (1594–1664 CE) initially held a high position in the Nizamshahi state of Ahmednagar. After Shah Jahan conquered Ahmednagar in 1636 CE, Shahaji joined Bijapur and, in addition to his old jagir of Pune, received an extensive jagir in Karnataka. During this period, he married a second time and went to Karnataka on military campaigns for the Adil Shah with his second wife, Tukabai Mohite. From Tukabai was born Ekoji, the founder of the Tanjore state.
Shivaji spent his childhood at the fort of Shivneri with his mother Jijabai, a deeply religious woman of pure conduct who inspired her son with stories of ancient Hindu heroes from the Ramayana, Mahabharata, and Puranas. Her influence was paramount in shaping Shivaji’s character. According to Ranade, “If the greatness of great men ever owes anything to their mothers’ inspiration, Jijabai’s influence on Shivaji’s character and strength was of supreme importance.”
In 1636 CE, Shahaji had to surrender Shivneri fort to Shah Jahan under a treaty, after which Shivaji moved with his mother to Pune, which had become Shahaji’s jagir. Dadaji Kondadev, an experienced elderly Brahmin who efficiently managed Shahaji’s estates, was appointed to oversee Shivaji’s education and upbringing. While the devout and strong-willed Jijabai filled Shivaji’s mind with valour, altruism, and patriotism, Dadaji Kondadev trained him in horsemanship, swordsmanship, marksmanship, and administration. His spiritual guru, Samarth Guru Ramdas, often urged: “Unite all Marathas and propagate the religion of Maharashtra.” He told Shivaji: “Mother and motherland are greater than heaven” (Janani Janmabhoomishcha Swargadapi Gariyasi).
Shivaji claimed descent from the Yadava dynasty of Devagiri through his mother and from the Sisodia clan of Mewar through his father. Thus, pride in a glorious lineage, the natural beauty of his homeland, his mother’s influence, and the inspiration and teachings of saints like Tukaram and Ramdas kindled in Shivaji an intense desire to establish an independent state. Shivaji married Saibai Nimbalkar on 14 May 1640 CE at the Lal Mahal in Pune. At the age of twelve, he received the Pune jagir from his father.
Early Achievements of Shivaji
Initially, Shivaji faced three major problems. First, he could establish his state only in Bijapur’s territories, so he needed to maintain good relations with the Mughals. Second, conflict with Bijapur risked the persecution of his father Shahaji, who was a noble in Bijapur’s service. Third, many high-ranking Maratha nobles in Bijapur did not wish to support Shivaji’s state-building efforts. These nobles also had to be persuaded to accept the ideal of a Maratha state. Shivaji did not want bloodshed among Marathas, so he resorted to diplomatic cunning. He also avoided open war with Bijapur, as it would have been suicidal.
At that time, Bijapur was plagued by internal strife and foreign invasions. The growing weakness of the Deccan sultanates and the prolonged Mughal campaigns in the north greatly aided the rise of Maratha power. Sultan Adil Shah of Bijapur withdrew his garrisons from many forts and handed them over to local chiefs or feudatories. When Adil Shah fell ill, anarchy spread in Bijapur, and Shivaji seized the opportunity to encroach upon Bijapur’s borders.
Control over Forts
After receiving the Pune jagir (1641 CE), Shivaji organised people of all castes from the hilly region under the name “Mavales” and cleverly strengthened his power. The support of the Mavales later proved as crucial for Shivaji as the Afghans had been for Sher Shah Suri.
In 1644 CE, Shivaji, with the Mavales, captured the western strip of Pune district known as “Barah Maval.” The same year, he seized the Bijapuri forts of Kondana and Rohida north of Pune. In 1646 CE, through cunning, he captured Torna fort, 30 km southwest of Pune, from its Bijapuri killadar. With the wealth found at Torna, Shivaji repaired the fort and consolidated his power. After Torna, he began conquering surrounding forts through strategy and skill.
Adil Shah was deeply disturbed by news of Shivaji’s expansionist policy. He warned Shahaji to control his son. Shahaji wrote to Shivaji, but Shivaji took over the management of his father’s jagir and stopped paying regular tribute. He also captured Supa fort and sent his uncle Shambhuji Mohite to Karnataka with part of Shahaji’s army, which then joined Shivaji.
Chakan and Kondana
The killadar of Chakan, Firangoji Narsala, voluntarily accepted Shivaji’s suzerainty, giving him control over Chakan fort and the outposts of Indapur and Baramati. By bribing a Maval officer, Tanaji Malusare, Shivaji captured Kondana fort and renamed it Sinhagad.
Purandar
In 1648 CE, through cunning and diplomacy, Shivaji seized Purandar fort from the Maratha killadar Neeloji Nayak. When Neeloji accepted subordination and pledged support for the Maratha state, Shivaji reappointed him as killadar of Purandar. By 1648 CE, Shivaji had become the lord of a small territory from Chakan to the Nira river, protected by a long chain of hill forts.
Kalyan
In 1648 CE, Shivaji sent a cavalry force under Abaji Sondev against Konkan. Abaji conquered Konkan, captured nine forts including Kalyan, stored all the loot at Raigad, and advanced toward Kolaba, where he supported local leaders striving to throw off Muslim rule.
Imprisonment of Shahaji and Truce (1649–1655 CE)
Bijapur’s Sultan was already enraged by Shivaji’s activities. The conquest of Kalyan in Konkan and other disruptive actions prompted the Sultan in 1648 CE to summon Shahaji from Karnataka and demand an explanation. Dissatisfied with Shahaji’s reply, the Sultan imprisoned him. Shahaji was also accused of colluding with the ruler of Golconda, Qutb Shah, an enemy of Adil Shah.
Deeply distressed by his father’s arrest and the confiscation of his jagirs, Shivaji appealed to Emperor Shah Jahan through Prince Murad Bakhsh. Shah Jahan accepted the appeal and appointed Shivaji a panch-hazari mansabdar. Fearing imperial intervention, the Sultan of Bijapur released Shahaji on the condition that he remain outside Bijapur for four years. It is also said that Shahaji’s release resulted from the intervention of two influential Bijapuri nobles, Sharza Khan and Randola Khan. Whatever the case, Shahaji’s release was conditional on Shivaji restraining his activities.
Thus, from 1649 to 1655 CE, Shivaji suspended operations against Bijapur. He utilised this period to consolidate his power in conquered territories and organise his army.
Expansion of Dominance
Capture of Javli (January 1656 CE)
In accordance with the terms of Shahaji’s release, Shivaji refrained from attacking Bijapur’s territories but continued to expand southwestward, capturing Javli fort.
Javli state lay between the Vama and Krishna rivers, northwest of Satara. Its Bijapuri killadar, Chandrarao More, considered himself a descendant of the Mauryas and a high-caste Maratha. He was seen as an obstacle to Maratha unity. When he refused to betray his Sultan, Shivaji had him assassinated in January 1656 CE and seized the fort. The wealth stored at Javli strengthened Shivaji’s power, and many Maval soldiers joined his army.
First Encounter with the Mughals (1657 CE)
Shivaji’s first clash with the Mughals occurred in 1657 CE. After the death of Bijapur’s Sultan Adil Shah on 1 November 1656 CE, anarchy ensued in Bijapur. Prince Aurangzeb, the Mughal subahdar of the Deccan, invaded Bijapur in 1657 CE. Shivaji attempted friendship with Aurangzeb but, failing, attacked the Mughal districts of Ahmednagar and Junnar, looting the latter. Aurangzeb was furious but was forced to conclude a treaty with Bijapur under Shah Jahan’s orders. Seeing the unfavourable situation, Shivaji also agreed to a truce, pledging loyalty to the Mughals. Although Aurangzeb distrusted Shivaji and called him a “mountain rat,” he accepted the proposal because Shah Jahan’s illness required his presence in the north.
Conquest of Konkan (1657 CE)
Taking advantage of Aurangzeb’s absence from southern India and Bijapur’s chaotic politics, Shivaji unsuccessfully attempted to capture Janjira from the Siddis in 1657 CE. Later that year, he attacked southern Konkan, capturing Kalyan and Bhiwandi and establishing a naval base there. He also collected annual tribute from the Portuguese at Daman. By the end of 1657 CE, the Marathas had reached Mahad in the south, and Shivaji controlled over forty forts.
Conflict with Bijapur
Victory over Afzal Khan (10 November 1659 CE)
Having temporarily recovered from Mughal invasions and internal strife, Bijapur now faced a serious challenge from Shivaji’s expansionism. Shahaji had earlier expressed inability to restrain Shivaji. A faction in the Bijapur court, led by Abdullah Bhatari (Afzal Khan), advocated harsh action against Shivaji. Finally, in 1659 CE, the Sultan sent a powerful cavalry force with artillery under Afzal Khan to crush Shivaji. Afzal Khan ravaged Shivaji’s territories and destroyed temples as he advanced toward Shirval, but Shivaji remained at Pratapgad fort. Afzal Khan sent a messenger, the Maratha Brahmin Krishnaji Bhaskar Kulkarni, to Shivaji, offering that if Shivaji accepted Bijapur’s suzerainty, the Sultan would grant him all territories under his control and a respected position at court.
Although Shivaji’s ministers favoured the treaty, he suspected Afzal Khan’s intentions. He retained Krishnaji Bhaskar with honour and sent his own envoy, Pantaji Gopinath, to assess the situation. From their reports, Shivaji concluded that Afzal Khan planned to capture or kill him through treachery. Instead of war, Shivaji sent valuable gifts and agreed to meet Afzal Khan with only two bodyguards each near Pratapgad. For protection, Shivaji wore an iron armour under his clothes, a helmet under his turban, tiger claws (baghnakh) in one hand, and a dagger in his sleeve. His bodyguards, Jiva Mahale and Shambhuji Kavji, were renowned warriors.
On 10 November 1659 CE, Afzal Khan arrived heavily armed at the meeting place, accompanied by the expert swordsman Sayyid Banda. It is said that Afzal Khan seized Shivaji by the neck and struck with his sword, but Shivaji was saved by his armour and helmet. Shivaji then killed Afzal Khan with his tiger claws. At the signal, Maratha troops hidden in the jungle attacked and routed the leaderless Bijapuri army, looting their camp. The Pratapgad encounter became an immortal legend in Maratha history. Shivaji’s unparalleled courage spread throughout Maharashtra, dealing a severe blow to Bijapur’s prestige.
European scholars like Khafi Khan and Duff condemned Shivaji’s killing of Afzal as a heinous crime, claiming Afzal struck first. Maratha writers, however, justified Shivaji’s action, arguing that Afzal, who had previously betrayed Maratha warriors in 1638 and 1654, trapped himself in his own snare. In reality, it was self-defence against a Bijapuri general’s aggression. Jadunath Sarkar remarked: “It was a case of diamond cutting diamond.” Contemporary factory records confirm this.
Battle of Kolhapur (29 December 1659 CE)
After Afzal Khan’s death and Bijapur’s defeat, Shivaji defeated Bijapur’s army at Kolhapur on 29 December 1659 CE, capturing Panhala and nearby territories. He also seized Pavangad and Vasantgad forts and repulsed Rustam Khan’s attack.
Fall of Panhala (1660 CE)
Alarmed by Shivaji’s military expansion, Bijapur’s Sultan sent Siddi Jauhar, Rustam Khan, Fazl Khan, and Baji Ghorpade in 1660 CE to crush the Marathas. While Shivaji was fortifying Panhala, the Bijapuri army besieged it from three sides. After four months, Panhala fell. Siddi Jauhar created a crisis for Shivaji, but after assuring surrender, Shivaji escaped at night on 13 July 1660 CE with 700 soldiers and reached Vishalgad. At the Bijapur court, Shivaji’s escape from Panhala was attributed to Siddi Jauhar’s betrayal of the Sultan. The Sultan personally took command and recaptured Panhala, Pavangad, and other places.
Recognition as an Independent Ruler (1662 CE)
Meanwhile, Siddi Jauhar rebelled in Karnataka. After suppressing the rebellion, the Sultan of Bijapur, through Shahaji’s mediation (who still held an important position in Bijapur), concluded a short-term treaty with Shivaji in 1662 CE. Under this treaty, Shivaji was recognised as an independent ruler, and his conquered territories were confirmed to him. The region from Kalyan in the north to Ponda in the south and from Indapur in the east to Dhabol in the west came under Shivaji’s control. In honour of the treaty, Shivaji pledged peaceful relations with Bijapur during his father’s lifetime. He made Raigad (formerly Rairi) his capital and renamed it Raigad.
Renewed Conflict with the Mughals (1660 CE onward)
Shivaji’s first clash with the Mughals had occurred in 1657 CE when Aurangzeb invaded Bijapur, and Shivaji looted Junnar. The conflict ended with a Mughal–Bijapur treaty, and Mughal succession struggles kept them occupied in the Deccan for about two years.
After becoming emperor, Aurangzeb appointed his maternal uncle Shaista Khan as subahdar of the Deccan in 1660 CE to control Shivaji. Shaista Khan arrived in Aurangabad in January 1660 CE and secured Bijapur’s cooperation. He seized territories and forts between Pune and Ahmednagar from the Marathas and, after heavy fighting, captured Chakan, Kalyan, and northern Konkan. The Marathas continued guerrilla warfare under Shivaji’s leadership, but Khafi Khan wrote that Shivaji was so terrified that he could not stay in one place for more than a week.
Attack on Shaista Khan (5 April 1663 CE)
After nearly two years of irregular warfare, Shivaji decided to attack Shaista Khan, who was staying at the Rang Mahal in Pune. Despite strict security and a ban on Marathas entering the city, Shivaji, disguised as a wedding procession with 350 Mavales, entered on 4 April 1663 CE and stormed the palace after midnight on 5 April, killing forty guards. Shaista Khan escaped through a window but lost three fingers. His son Abul Fath and many Mughal soldiers were killed, along with several women of the harem in the darkness. Shivaji safely reached a fort near Sinhagad.
This daring feat greatly enhanced Shivaji’s prestige, and the Mughals began calling him the “incarnation of Satan.” Aurangzeb replaced Shaista Khan with Prince Muazzam as subahdar of the Deccan and transferred Shaista Khan to Bengal.
First Plunder of Surat (January 1664 CE)
Over the previous four years, Mughal armies had devastated Shivaji’s territories. To recover losses, Shivaji attacked Surat, the richest port on the western coast, in January 1664 CE with four thousand horsemen and plundered it for six days. Surat was then the centre of western trade and the gateway for Indian Muslims going on Haj. There was no resistance, as the governor fled. Shivaji obtained over ten million rupees in cash and goods. The English and Dutch factories successfully defended themselves and escaped looting. Both recorded the event in their writings.
Assumption of the Title “Raja” and Coinage (1664 CE)
Around this time, Shivaji’s father Shahaji died in the Tungabhadra doab while suppressing a rebellion of feudatories. After his father’s death, Shivaji assumed the title “Raja,” previously granted to Shahaji by the Sultan of Ahmednagar, and began minting coins in his name, thereby declaring his independence.
Second Clash with the Mughals (1665 CE)
Aurangzeb was deeply aggrieved by Shivaji’s plunder of Surat, a highly profitable Mughal port. He replaced the faujdar of Surat, Inayat Khan, with Gyasuddin Khan and sent a huge army under Prince Muazzam (chief commander) and Jaswant Singh (deputy commander) to deal with Shivaji. They achieved no success. Disappointed, Aurangzeb recalled them and, in early 1665 CE, sent Raja Jai Singh of Amber and Diler Khan with a powerful army. Diler Khan (founder of Shahjahanabad in Ruhelkhand) was a seasoned general.
Jai Singh secured the cooperation of Bijapur’s Sultan, European powers, and minor feudatories and attacked Shivaji, encircling him and besieging Purandar and Rajgad (Sinhagad). This created a critical situation for Shivaji. Soldiers in both forts resisted for some time. While defending Purandar, Baji Prabhu and the valiant commander Murarbaji Deshpande were killed along with three hundred Mavales. Finally compelled, Shivaji sent a treaty proposal to Raja Jai Singh, and the Treaty of Purandar was concluded on 22 June 1665 CE.
Treaty of Purandar (22 June 1665 CE)
Under the treaty, Shivaji had to surrender twenty-three forts with an annual revenue of four lakh huns. Only twelve forts, including Raigad, remained with him. He accepted Mughal suzerainty and agreed to send his son Sambhaji with five thousand horsemen to Mughal service. He pledged to assist the Mughals against Bijapur and was promised territory in Konkan worth four lakh huns and in Balaghat worth five lakh huns after Bijapur’s conquest, in return for paying forty lakh huns in thirteen instalments. Additionally, he agreed to pay five lakh huns annually and provide five thousand horsemen for Mughal campaigns in the Deccan. To compensate for state losses, Shivaji was allowed to collect chauth and sardeshmukhi from some Bijapur districts. In reality, the Treaty of Purandar was Jai Singh’s diplomatic victory: the Mughals gained much, Shivaji suffered heavy losses, and Bijapur and Shivaji became enemies.
Visit to Agra (16 March 1666 CE)
After the Treaty of Purandar, Jai Singh remained engaged in the Bijapur campaign, in which Shivaji directly assisted the Mughals. On Jai Singh’s advice, Aurangzeb invited Shivaji to Agra. To persuade Shivaji, Jai Singh promised rewards and prestige, swore to ensure his safety, and convinced him to travel to Agra.
The purpose of sending Shivaji to the imperial court was to remove him from the troubled Deccan, but why did Shivaji accept Jai Singh’s proposal? It is said he wished to learn about the Mughal emperor and the Rajput kings and assess the true state of the Mughal Empire. He may also have sought the emperor’s permission to conquer Janjira island, then under a royal servant named Siddi. With the assurance of astrologers and the consent of close officers, Shivaji, accompanied by his son Sambhaji, five officers, and 350 soldiers, departed for Agra on 16 March 1666 CE and arrived on 9 May 1666 CE. He was welcomed by Jai Singh’s son Ram Singh and another imperial officer, Mukhlis Khan.
Shivaji in Agra (May 1666 CE)
When Shivaji arrived at Aurangzeb’s court in May 1666 CE, the emperor was celebrating his fiftieth lunar birthday. Through the mir bakhshi Asad Khan, Shivaji was presented in the Diwan-e-Khas. The emperor granted him a panch-hazari mansab and placed him behind Jaswant Singh. Although a five-thousand rank was not insignificant, it had already been given to Shivaji’s son Sambhaji and son-in-law Nathuji, making it insulting for Shivaji. Being placed behind Jaswant Singh further humiliated him. Accusing Aurangzeb of treachery, Shivaji stormed out of the court. As a result, Aurangzeb placed him under house arrest at Jaipur Bhawan, where he was staying.
Escape from Agra (17 August 1666 CE)
In August 1666 CE, Shivaji planned his escape from imperial captivity. Through courage and ingenuity, both Shivaji and Sambhaji hid in sweetmeat baskets and escaped from Ram Singh’s Jaipur Bhawan on 17 August 1666 CE. Disguised, Shivaji reached Mathura, left Sambhaji with a trusted Brahmin, and travelled via Allahabad, Banaras, Gaya, eastern Bengal, Puri, and Telangana, reaching Raigad on 20 September 1666 CE. He re-entered his capital in December 1666 CE after nearly nine months away. Angered by the escape, Aurangzeb reprimanded the kotwal Kunwar Man Singh and stripped Ram Singh of his rank and salary. It is said that out of suspicion, Aurangzeb later had Jai Singh poisoned in Burhanpur on 2 July 1667 CE while he was travelling to Agra.
Treaty with the Mughals (9 March 1668 CE)
In 1668 CE, Shivaji, with Jaswant Singh’s help, sought a treaty with the Mughals through diplomacy. On Jaswant Singh’s advice, the emperor accepted negotiations on 9 March 1668 CE. Under the treaty, Aurangzeb recognised Shivaji as ruler of Maharashtra and granted him the title “Raja.” Shivaji received a jagir in Berar, and his son Sambhaji was reinstated with a panch-hazari mansab. The districts of Pune, Chakan, and Supa were restored, but Sinhagad and Purandar remained under Mughal control. For the next three years (9 March 1668–1670 CE), there was no conflict between the Mughals and Marathas. Shivaji used this period to strengthen his power and administration.
Third Clash with the Mughals (1670 CE)
After consolidating his power and administration, Shivaji launched a campaign against the Mughals in 1670 CE. The valiant Tanaji Malusare recaptured Kondana fort. Exploiting the rivalry between Mughal subahdar Shah Alam and his deputy Diler Khan, Shivaji recaptured all forts ceded under the Treaty of Purandar, including Sinhagad, Purandar, Mahuli, Karnala, and Lohagad. For the first time, he collected chauth and sardeshmukhi from Mughal territories. In March 1670 CE, East India Company officials at Surat wrote: “Shivaji does not roam like a plunderer; he attacks with thirty thousand troops and is victorious wherever he goes. He cares little that the prince is encamped nearby.”
Second Plunder of Surat (3 October 1670 CE)
During this campaign, Shivaji attacked Surat again on 3 October 1670 CE and plundered it for three days, repeating the events of the first raid. The Marathas carried away approximately 13.2 million rupees in cash and goods. On his return, Shivaji defeated the Mughal commander Daud Khan.
Shivaji then conducted military operations in all directions. He attacked Berar, Baglana, and Khandesh, capturing Salher and Mulher forts. The Marathas also seized Jawhar and Ramnagar in northern Konkan and later captured Panhala, Parli, and Satara. Mughal armies attacked Shivaji’s state in 1671–72 CE but failed. In 1672 CE, Shivaji collected chauth from Surat. While Aurangzeb was busy with tribal rebellions in the northwest, the Marathas reached the zenith of their power.
Coronation of Shivaji (6 June 1674 CE)
In western Maharashtra, Shivaji had conquered numerous forts and territories, establishing an independent Maratha empire. However, his opponents still regarded him merely as a powerful and rebellious jagirdar. To declare his independent sovereignty and present the ideal of kingship to the Marathas, Shivaji decided to hold his coronation.
Shivaji belonged to the Kunbi caste, considered Shudra. This created several problems for his coronation. First, the Peshwa, himself a Brahmin, publicly opposed Shivaji’s claim to Kshatriya status. Brahmins compiled a list of Shivaji’s intentional and unintentional sins, fixed a penalty, and required him to feed, clothe, and support 11,000 Brahmin families for four months.
Finally, through the efforts of his private secretary Balaji Raoji, a Brahmin from Banaras named Gaga Bhatta declared Shivaji a Suryavanshi Kshatriya for a bribe of one lakh rupees and performed his formal coronation at Raigad on 6 June 1674 CE. Shivaji was crowned with a golden crown, showered with precious gems and gold flowers, and granted the title “Hindu-dharmoddharak” (Protector of Hinduism).
During the ceremony, he performed the Hiranyagarbha ritual, assumed the title “Chhatrapati,” and introduced a new era like other Hindu rulers. The event was witnessed by Henry Oxenden, head of the English factory at Surat. Thus, a great warrior fell victim to casteism and was tempted to acquire Kshatriya status by paying a large sum. Despite efforts to appease dissatisfied Brahmins with money, the Brahmins of Pune still refused to recognise Shivaji as king.
Supplementary Coronation (4 October 1674 CE)
Twelve days after the coronation, Shivaji’s mother passed away, so a supplementary coronation was performed according to Tantric rites on 4 October 1674 CE, and Shivaji assumed the title “Chhatrapati” for the second time. The establishment of “Hindavi Swaraj” was proclaimed, and Shivaji minted coins in his name as an independent ruler.
Southern Conquest after Coronation
After the coronation, Shivaji plundered Mughal territories, as the treasury had been depleted by coronation expenses. He defeated the famous Mughal general Bahadur Khan, seizing approximately ten million rupees in cash and two hundred fine horses. He also plundered Bijapur’s territories in Khandesh and Baglana. Eventually, Bijapur’s Sultan concluded a treaty with Shivaji.
Karnataka Campaign (1677–78 CE)
After the treaty with Bijapur, Shivaji launched a campaign in eastern Karnataka (1677–78 CE) to acquire wealth and establish a Maratha state there. His aim may have been to create an alternative base for the Maratha government in times of crisis. The Karnataka campaign was an outstanding example of Shivaji’s diplomatic success: neither Bijapur nor Golconda opposed it, and the Mughals, engaged in the northwest, could not attack the Maratha state.
During the campaign, Shivaji conquered Jinji, Belur, and Tiruvadi, extending his territory from the Tungabhadra to the Kaveri river and making Jinji the capital of his new southern domain. This vast region, encompassing Madras, Karnataka, and the Mysore plateau, contained a hundred forts yielding an annual revenue of twenty lakh huns. Shivaji then unsuccessfully attempted to capture Janjira island from the Siddis. For this purpose, he built a navy under the command of Maynak Bhandari.
Final Conflict with the Mughals (1679 CE)
After returning from Karnataka, war resumed between Shivaji and the Mughals because Shivaji had assisted the Siddis of Janjira against Mughal attacks. Later, when Mughal general Diler Khan attacked Bijapur, Shivaji again helped Bijapur.
Shivaji’s last campaign in 1679 CE was in the Jalna and Aurangabad regions. On 23 March 1680 CE, he fell ill with fever and died on Saturday, 3 April 1680 CE after a brief illness. Thus, after thirty years of continuous struggle, Shivaji established an independent Maratha state encompassing large parts of Maharashtra, Konkan, and Karnataka.
Shivaji’s success was astonishing and miraculous. Despite relentless efforts, Aurangzeb could not crush Shivaji’s power, and the Marathas continued to collect chauth from Mughal territories. Grant Duff wrote that the territories Shivaji conquered or the wealth he amassed were less formidable for the Mughals than the ideal, new ideology, and system he introduced and the fresh inspiration he infused into the Maratha race.
Shivaji’s Administration
Shivaji was not only a brave commander and successful conqueror but also a skilled organiser and administrator. Although he had little opportunity for formal education in childhood, he was well-versed in Indian history and politics. He regarded himself as “Kshatriya Kulavtansa” (Ornament of the Kshatriya Race) and “Hindu-dharmoddharak” (Protector of Hinduism). Following Shukracharya and Kautilya, he often employed diplomacy. In reality, Shivaji’s administrative system evolved from his experience, local needs, contemporary circumstances, and the demands of continuous warfare.
Main Features of Shivaji’s Administration
Ashtapradhan Council and Accountability to the Chhatrapati
The Ashtapradhan (council of eight ministers) was a central feature of Shivaji’s administration, with clearly defined functions. The eight ministers—Peshwa, Senapati, Amatya, Waknis, Surunavis, Sumant, Nyayadhish, and Panditrao—handled various administrative and military responsibilities and were fully accountable to Chhatrapati Shivaji.
Merit-based Appointments
Appointments in Shivaji’s administration were based on merit and ability, not heredity or social status. This policy distinguished the Maratha administration from contemporary systems like those of the Mughals and Bijapur, where nobility and loyalty often took precedence. Shivaji selected capable individuals from various castes and communities, ensuring diversity and efficiency.
Abolition of Jagirdari and Cash Salaries
Shivaji abolished the jagirdari system and introduced cash salaries for officials and officers—a revolutionary step, as jagirdari was prevalent in Mughal and other contemporary regimes. Jagirdari often bred corruption and autonomy, weakening central authority. Shivaji’s cash salary system ensured administrative discipline and financial transparency.
Land Survey and Revenue Assessment
Shivaji introduced a system of land survey and revenue assessment based on crop yield, inspired by Malik Ambar. Land was measured using the kathi (standard rod), and fields were classified as superior, medium, or inferior. This system was transparent, as ryots knew their tax liability in advance. Initially, revenue was one-third of the produce, later raised to two-fifths.
Direct Revenue Collection from Ryots and Loan System
Shivaji collected land revenue directly from ryots, eliminating intermediaries and zamindars—a hallmark of the ryotwari system that protected peasants from exploitation. The state also provided loans for seeds, cattle, and agricultural needs, repayable in easy instalments, with unconditional aid during famines or natural disasters.
Land Grants Only for Religious Purposes
Shivaji abolished land grants except for religious purposes. While land grants, especially jagirs, were common in contemporary India, Shivaji limited them to temples, religious institutions, and saints to promote religious and social unity.
Fort-based Administrative System
Forts were the foundation of Maratha administration and defence. Shivaji’s state had approximately 280 forts forming a network across swarajya. They served as both defensive strongholds and administrative centres. Each fort had three officers of equal rank—Havaldar, Sabnis, and Sar-naubat—who checked one another.
Centralised Administration
Like medieval rulers, Shivaji’s system was monarchical, with all powers vested in him as king. Yet his autocracy was inspired by public welfare. He was the final law-maker, chief justice, and commander-in-chief but never used his powers for personal gain.
The Ashtapradhan Ministers
Peshwa (Prime Minister)
The Peshwa was the most important and influential minister after the Chhatrapati. His primary duty was to oversee the smooth functioning of the entire administration, supervise officials, and protect the interests of swarajya. He was often the Chhatrapati’s trusted confidant and played a key role in policy-making.
Senapati (Commander-in-Chief)
The Senapati led the Maratha army in war, handled recruitment, discipline, training, and logistics. He was crucial in implementing Maratha guerrilla tactics (ganimi kava).
Amatya/Majumdar (Finance Minister)
The Amatya managed the state’s finances and revenue, maintained accounts, supervised revenue collection, and implemented financial policies. He played a vital role in enforcing Shivaji’s ryotwari system.
Mantri/Waknis (Chronicler)
The Mantri recorded the Chhatrapati’s daily activities and important events, preserving historical records and assisting in personal and official management.
Sachiv/Surunavis (Correspondence Secretary)
The Sachiv handled official correspondence, drafted treaties and documents, and affixed the royal seal. He also audited mahals and parganas for revenue transparency.
Sumant/Dabir (Foreign Minister and Chief of Intelligence)
The Sumant advised on foreign policy, assisted in decisions on peace and war, received foreign envoys, and managed Maratha diplomats. His intelligence department was crucial for strategic success.
Nyayadhish (Chief Justice Colab)
The Nyayadhish decided civil and criminal cases based on Hindu dharmashastras and customary law. Village panchayats and patils handled minor cases, while major cases went to him. The supreme court (Hajir Majlis) was presided over by the Chhatrapati or his appointee.
Panditrao (Chief Priest and Charities Minister)
The Panditrao managed religious ceremonies, grants, and charitable works. Under Shivaji’s policy of religious tolerance, he arranged grants not only for Hindu temples but also for mosques and other faiths.
All ministers except the Nyayadhish and Panditrao performed both civil and military duties. Except for the Senapati, all Ashtapradhan ministers were Brahmins. Each minister had deputies (mutalik or karbhari) and numerous departmental staff.
The Maratha State
The Maratha state established by Shivaji was primarily based on south Indian traditions, incorporating features of the Deccan sultanates and some Mughal elements. It provided the Maratha empire with a well-organised and effective system suited to local needs and circumstances. The state was divided into swarajya (directly ruled territories) and mugalai (areas from which tribute was collected). Recently conquered territories were placed under “adhiqaran sena.”
Swarajya Territories
Swarajya comprised areas under Shivaji’s direct control, mainly Maharashtra, divided into three provinces: northern, southern, and south-eastern. Each province was governed by a subedar appointed by Shivaji. This was the core of the Maratha empire, where his policies—ryotwari revenue, military organisation, and fort network—were fully implemented.
Mughalai Territories
Mugalai areas were not under direct Maratha administration but paid chauth (25% of produce) and sardeshmukhi (additional 10%) as protection money or in recognition of Shivaji’s traditional leadership.
Recently Conquered Territories
Newly conquered southern territories like Jinji were temporarily under military administration until fully integrated.
Provincial Administration
Swarajya was divided into three provinces, each under a subedar responsible for peace, defence, and revenue. Provinces were subdivided into parganas and mahals, with the village as the smallest unit. Each subedar had his own Ashtapradhan council.
Military Organisation
Shivaji reorganised the Maratha army on modern lines, creating a regular standing force of about 40,000 cavalry and 10,000 infantry (some estimates suggest 100,000 each). According to Sabhasad Bakhar, there were 1,260 elephants and 1,500–3,000 camels. Artillery strength is unknown, but Shivaji purchased eighty cannons from the French at Surat.
Cavalry
Two categories: bargirs (state-provided horses and equipment) and silhedars (self-equipped, paid fixed amounts). Units: 25 troopers under a havaldar, 5 havaldars under a jumladar, 10 jumladars under a hazari, and 5 hazaris under a panch-hazari. The supreme commander was the Sar-naubat.
Infantry
Units: 9 soldiers under a naik, 5 naiks under a havaldar, 2–3 havaldars under a jumladar, 10 jumladars under a hazari, and 7 hazaris under a sath-hazari, above whom was the Sar-naubat.
Shivaji trained 20,000 Mavale youths as personal bodyguards. Civilian officers accompanied high military officials for coordination. Infantry and silhedar cavalry also engaged in agriculture and plunder campaigns when not at war.
Forts
Forts were central to Maratha administration and defence. Each had three equal officers (Havaldar, Sabnis, Sar-naubat) who checked one another. Shivaji maintained caste balance: Havaldar and Sar-naubat were Marathas, Sabnis a Brahmin.
Navy
Shivaji built coastal forts and a navy, recruiting local coastal communities. Though it achieved little in his lifetime, it later troubled the English, Portuguese, and Dutch under the Angres.
Shivaji’s army was highly disciplined, organised, and skilled in guerrilla warfare. He personally oversaw recruitment, training, and discipline, paying regular salaries and rewards but enforcing strict discipline.
Military Code of Conduct
Severe penalties for violations: no damage to agricultural or residential areas, no taking women on campaigns, no seizing cows (bullocks only for transport), no harm to Brahmins or sacred books, precious loot to the state, copper and utensils could be kept. Breaches were harshly punished.
Revenue System
Land revenue was the main source of income. Shivaji opposed jagirdari and zamindari, abolished revenue farming, and introduced direct collection from ryots (ryotwari). In 1679 CE, Annaji Datto conducted a land survey using the kathi instead of rope. Land was classified into three categories based on fertility, with revenue initially one-third, later two-fifths of the produce, payable in cash or kind. Loans were provided for agricultural needs, with relief during calamities.
The state was divided into sixteen provinces, further into tarafs and mauzas. Though jagirdari was not completely eliminated, Shivaji curtailed the power of deshmukhs and established supervision. Modern research refutes allegations of harsh revenue collection; Shivaji’s system was humane and beneficial to the people.
Chauth and Sardeshmukhi
Due to limited revenue from hilly areas, Shivaji collected chauth (25%) and sardeshmukhi (10%) from neighbouring territories, especially Mughal and Bijapur lands. Chauth was protection money; sardeshmukhi was based on Shivaji’s claim as hereditary chief deshmukh of Maharashtra. These became systematic tools for economic and political expansion.
Judicial System
Based on ancient Hindu law, dharmashastras, and custom. Village patils and panchayats handled minor cases; serious cases went to the Nyayadhish. The supreme court (Hajir Majlis) was presided over by the Chhatrapati.
Religious Policy
Though regarded as the protector of Hinduism, Shivaji’s administration was based on religious tolerance. All communities enjoyed religious freedom. Muslims served in the army and administration. Shivaji respected Muslim saints and granted funds for mosques. Contemporary writer Khafi Khan praised his tolerance.
Nature of the Maratha State
The Maratha state was monarchical but not despotic. Tradition holds that Shivaji dedicated the state to Guru Ramdas and ruled only as trustee. Due to constant warfare, rules were strict, but Shivaji protected public honour, avoided unnecessary cruelty, and respected Muslim women and children.
Evaluation of Shivaji’s Personality and Achievements
Grant Duff wrote: “Shivaji was bold and considerate in planning and enthusiastic, resolute, and persevering in execution. But his schemes were so mixed with treachery and meanness that those parts of his character cannot be viewed without abhorrence.” Vincent Smith called him a “robber” and his state a “robber state,” echoing the Muslim historian Khafi Khan.
Such one-sided judgments fail to capture Shivaji’s true character and greatness. As both ruler and individual, Shivaji holds a unique place in Indian history. His mother Jijabai’s religious life deeply influenced him. He was an obedient son, devout Hindu, and inspired by his father’s ideal of swaraj. His religious outlook was broad and humanitarian. As a soldier, he was patient, indomitable, and extraordinarily brave. His organisational genius is evident in his military system.
As a ruler, his achievements are admirable. In an age of religious bigotry, he adopted tolerance and employed Muslims. Despite continuous warfare, he established an excellent administration suited to circumstances. A.L. Srivastava wrote: “As a ruler, Shivaji gave his people not only peace and public tolerance but also equal opportunities for advancement without discrimination.”
Charges against Shivaji
He is accused of being a plunderer, treacherous, and ruling a war-state—all baseless.
- Plunderer: Limited resources made plunder necessary for maintaining a large army—a common practice then, employed by Mughals and Bijapur as well.
- Treacherous: Afzal Khan was the real traitor with a history of betrayal. Shivaji acted in self-defence.
- War-state: Continuous warfare was forced by circumstances, yet his Ashtapradhan system proves a well-thought-out administrative structure.
Shivaji possessed extraordinary creative talent, political insight, and diplomatic skill. From a jagirdar, he became Chhatrapati and the irreconcilable enemy of the Mughal Empire through unparalleled valour and diplomacy. He perfected ganimi kava (guerrilla warfare) and secured diplomatic support from Bijapur and Golconda when needed.
His greatest achievement was creating the Maratha state. He united the scattered Maratha caste, instilled confidence, and established Hindavi Swaraj against powerful opponents—the Mughals, Bijapur, Portuguese, and Siddis of Janjira.
At his death, Shivaji left behind a vast state. As Grant Duff noted, the territories and wealth he acquired were less dangerous to the Mughals than the spirit of freedom and swaraj he instilled in the Marathas. This Maratha nation defied the Mughal Empire, became the dominant power in eighteenth-century India, and even reduced Aurangzeb’s descendant to a puppet under a Maratha sardar like Mahadji Scindia. The Marathas also rivalled the British for supremacy.
Shivaji was not a conqueror who plundered for cruelty or greed. He treated captured women and children, including Muslims, with respect. Even his bitter critic Khafi Khan praised his chivalrous conduct: “Shivaji tried to protect the honour of his people. He carefully safeguarded Muslim women and children who fell into his hands, issuing strict orders and punishing violators.”
Rawlinson wrote: “He did not indulge in deliberate or aimless cruelty. Respect for women, mosques, and non-combatants, no massacre after victory, and honourable release of prisoners were not ordinary virtues.” M.G. Ranade said: “Like Napoleon, Shivaji was a great organiser and administrator of civil government.” Elphinstone aptly observed: “The son of a powerful feudatory, Shivaji began life as a daring and skilful captain of banditti and rose to be a skilled general and able statesman. He presented an ideal that none of his countrymen has yet equalled.”
As a nation-builder, Shivaji not only founded a dynasty but united the Marathas against the Mughal Empire, created a nation, and inaugurated a new chapter in medieval Indian history.
