Introduction to the Rise of Nation-States in Europe
In the Middle Ages, feudalism dominated Europe, with kings holding limited power. Feudal lords acted as nearly independent rulers, exercising powers similar to kings. States lacked sovereign independence; they were seen as part of the Christian world under papal control. However, the 15th and 16th centuries brought the Renaissance and Reformation movements, fostering nationalism and marking the end of the medieval era while ushering in the modern age. Intellectual, social, and economic factors led to the decline of feudalism, weakened the Church’s influence, and paved the way for modern nation-states.
At the dawn of the modern era, Western Europe saw the emergence of powerful and competitive monarchies in Spain, France, England, Portugal, and Scotland. In contrast, southern, eastern, and central Europe—including Germany, Italy, Bohemia, Poland, Sweden, Norway, Denmark, Turkey, Russia, and Lithuania—remained less organized and strong due to underdeveloped systems. Thus, the rise of national monarchies became a key feature of the modern era.
Causes of the Rise of National Monarchies
Decline of Feudalism
The decline of feudalism was a hallmark of medieval Europe. Feudal lords gradually increased their power, governing like small independent states. They waged wars not only against each other but also against kings without hesitation. England’s Wars of the Roses (1455-1485) is a prime example, lasting thirty years. Peasants endured extreme exploitation, and the common people suffered under feudalism, eagerly seeking its downfall. When kings strengthened their power to suppress feudal lords, the public supported them. This led to the decline of feudalism, bolstering royal authority and facilitating the establishment of absolute monarchies.
Development of Trade and Commerce
The commercial revolution played a crucial role in the rise of absolute monarchies. Mercantilist policies provided kings with abundant wealth, which they used to organize armies and expand their power. The expansion of trade emphasized the need for strong governments. As commerce advanced, the middle class strengthened socially and economically. This class supported strong national monarchies to protect and grow their commercial interests. The middle class aided monarchies against feudal lords and promoted nationalism. In return, kings offered protection to trade and commerce.
Emergence of the Middle Class
The emergence of the middle class was vital in the decline of feudalism. By the early 16th century, the middle class had become socially and economically powerful. This rising class supported monarchies for the development and security of their trade and commerce. Kings, in turn, protected commerce to gain the middle class’s sympathy. This not only boosted colonial establishments but also contributed significantly to the growth of nationalism. As historian Hayes noted, “The rise of the middle class and its close association with monarchy was perhaps the most important fact in the transition from the Middle Ages to the modern era.”
The Reformation Movement
By the end of the Middle Ages, the Church had developed numerous flaws. The Pope interfered not only in religious but also political affairs. However, with the Renaissance and the advent of the modern era, Europe’s people became more rational. They opposed the Pope’s corruption, luxury, and immorality. Western European rulers, politically opposed to papal authority, capitalized on public sentiments and strongly resisted the Church’s power. Some European countries supported the Protestant movement. As a result of the Reformation, the unity of the Catholic Church shattered, and the Church came under royal control. This enhanced the king’s prestige and power, further strengthening nationalism.
Growth of Nationalism
The growth of nationalism was a major cause of the rise of monarchies. Crusades, the Renaissance, Reformation, and vernacular literature strengthened this sentiment. The dissolution of monasteries increased the income and power of national states. Previously religion-centered civilizations now became nation-centered. National pride and honor motivated people to empower kings. Overseas trade and colonial establishments required strong navies and military forces, which only powerful monarchies could provide. Trade and colonies became symbols of national glory, further bolstering monarchies.
New Inventions
Renaissance-era inventions significantly contributed to the rise of monarchies. The invention of gunpowder, use of cannons, changes in warfare methods, discovery of new colonies, and the printing press proved crucial. Gunpowder and firearms rendered feudal castles and cavalry ineffective, leading to the rise of powerful monarchies.
Divine Right Theory
The divine right theory also played a key role in developing absolute monarchies. Renaissance and Reformation scholars supported strengthening royal power. Italian thinker Machiavelli, in “The Prince,” stated that the state’s purpose is to protect individuals and property, a task only absolute monarchy can achieve. French writer Bodin, in “The State,” explained sovereignty, asserting that the king’s power should be unlimited and accountable only to God. Similarly, English writer Hobbes supported powerful absolute monarchy in “Leviathan.”
Major Absolute Monarchies and Their Development
The decline of feudalism, advancement of trade and commerce, emergence of the middle class, Reformation movement, growth of nationalism, new inventions, and the divine right theory paved the way for absolute monarchies. Western Europe’s key countries—Spain, France, England, Portugal, and Scotland—moved toward establishing absolute national monarchies. Descriptions of some major national monarchies in the modern era follow:
Spain
South of the Pyrenees Mountains, bordered by the Mediterranean Sea, Atlantic Ocean, and Portugal, lies the plateau region of Spain. Before the 15th century, Spain lacked political unity and was divided into several regional states. In the 8th century, Moorish Muslims from North Africa conquered Spain, forcing Christian inhabitants to seek refuge in the mountains. However, through prolonged unification efforts, Christians regained control over most of Spain by the 15th century, except Granada. Thus, by the early 16th century, Spain saw the peak of its national monarchy.
Kingdoms of Castile and Aragon
By the late 15th century, Spain was mainly divided into two major kingdoms: Aragon and Castile. In 1479, Aragon’s Prince Ferdinand married Castile’s heiress Princess Isabella. This marriage unified Aragon and Castile, enabling Spain’s political integration. Only Granada remained under Moorish control. Finally, in 1492, Ferdinand and Isabella’s combined forces defeated the Moors and captured Granada. This achieved full religious and national unity, making Spain an independent nation.
Ferdinand and Isabella
In the 14th and 15th centuries, the growing Turkish influence threatened the Christian world. Muslim influence expanded in Eastern Europe, endangering the empire’s capital, Vienna. However, in the West, Spanish armies ended centuries of Moorish dominance, restoring Christian influence.
Ferdinand of Aragon and Isabella of Castile adopted policies to centralize all political powers and establish religious unity for absolute monarchy in Spain. They ended the autonomy of free cities, suppressed rebellious feudal lords, and established peace and order. Ferdinand promoted trade and commerce under royal protection, suppressed bandits, and improved transportation. A powerful navy was built, aiding colonial establishments.
Recognizing the importance of religious unity, they pledged loyalty to the Catholic Church. Pleased, Pope Alexander VI granted them the title “Catholic Monarchs.” The Pope also agreed that church officials in Spain would be appointed by the king. To establish religious unity, Inquisitions (religious courts) were set up to punish heretics. Through these, many opponents were executed, and Muslims and Jews were expelled from Spain.
Spain focused on foreign and colonial expansion to strengthen its position in European politics. In 1492, Columbus’s discovery opened the path to a vast Spanish empire in the New World (America). Soon, Spain dominated most of America, rich in gold and silver. America provided Spain with immense wealth, establishing it as one of Europe’s most powerful and prosperous nations at the start of the modern era.
Ferdinand strengthened ties with Portugal, Austria, and England through marriages: his second daughter Maria to Portugal’s ruler, eldest daughter Joanna to Austria’s Prince Philip I, and youngest daughter Catherine to England’s Prince Arthur (later Henry VIII after Arthur’s death). These matrimonial alliances unprecedentedly expanded Spain’s influence. Despite not matching France in population and domestic resources, Spain maintained its dominance.
The final step in Spain’s unification came in 1512, when France was defeated and Navarre annexed. Thus, Isabella and Ferdinand’s joint efforts fully unified Spain, granting it a significant place in European politics.
Charles I (1516-1556)
After Ferdinand’s death, his eldest daughter Joanna’s son Charles I (1516-1556) ascended Spain’s throne. In 1519, he was elected Holy Roman Emperor, becoming Charles V. He ruled not only Spain but also the Holy Roman Empire, Netherlands, Burgundy, Naples, Sicily, Sardinia, all of Spanish America, the Philippines, and parts of Africa. Under Charles, Spain reached the pinnacle of glory, though it was short-lived.
England
In England, national unity and a national government were established more rapidly than in other Western European states. The Hundred Years’ War (1337-1453) between France and England (a feudal and dynastic conflict) had significant outcomes. Initially successful, England ultimately faced defeat. Two years after the war’s end, the devastating Wars of the Roses (1455-1485) erupted in England. This civil war pitted the York dynasty (symbol: white rose) against the Lancaster dynasty (symbol: red rose) and their supporters. It ended in 1485 with Lancaster claimant Henry Tudor’s decisive victory at the Battle of Bosworth.
Henry VII
In 1485, Henry Tudor became Henry VII (1485-1509), founding the Tudor dynasty (1485-1603). Henry VII not only established a powerful dynasty but also freed England from medieval evils, superstitions, and feudal oppressions, guiding it into the modern era. His reign is called the “era of sowing seeds and reforms” in English history.
The Wars of the Roses benefited Henry VII in two ways. First, many powerful feudal lords were killed or weakened. Henry suppressed them through various acts, revoked their military rights, and appointed middle-class individuals to high positions. This ended feudalism and strengthened absolutism. Second, the suppression of feudal lords led to the rise of the middle class, which supported the king for their interests. This public support enabled Tudor kings to establish absolute monarchy in the 16th century.
Henry VII married Elizabeth of York, permanently ending the Wars of the Roses and establishing peace. He also built a strong monarchy to protect his throne. This unified all parts of the country and awakened nationalism. Henry strengthened royal power by removing governmental laxity from the Lancaster-York wars.
Henry VIII
After Henry VII, Henry VIII’s reign (1509-1547) saw the Reformation in England, with profound constitutional and religious impacts. The movement granted the king and Parliament control over the nation’s religious life. Years later, the dissolution of monasteries and dedicated places of worship provided the king with wealth and support.
The last Tudor ruler, Elizabeth I, further enhanced royal power. She played a key role in making England master of the seas and a leading global trading nation. During the Tudor era, England’s commercial progress increased its international importance. The English took pride in their country, and Tudor rulers became symbols of England’s power and glory. Parliament remained under their influence during the Tudor period. However, by the end of the Stuart dynasty (1603-1688), the Glorious Revolution of 1688 saw Parliament’s victory, laying the foundation for democracy and ending absolutism.
Scotland
By the early 16th century, Scotland had established a national monarchy, but it was far weaker than England’s. The main reason was the Stuart rulers’ failure to suppress their feudal lords. This weakness made Scottish rulers dependent on France. As a result, in the 16th century, Scotland’s national monarchy became a mere puppet in international political intrigues.
France
France’s development differed from England’s. Its geographic position made it vulnerable to invasions, unlike England, protected by the sea. By 1500, France had become a national monarchy with emerging national literature. The king was the center of national sentiments. The Hundred Years’ War caused heavy damage but unprecedentedly increased state power. French kings gained the right to impose taxes without summoning the Estates-General due to war needs, enabling them to maintain a standing army. No one but the king could organize an army. A regular army and sufficient funds gave French kings immense power.
Louis XI (1461-1483)
Louis XI laid the foundation for absolute royal power in France. During his reign, the middle class supported the monarchy against feudal lords for commercial advancement and peace. Using skillful diplomacy and practical intelligence, Louis seized feudal lords’ powers and estates. He abolished feudal courts and established royal ones. He also controlled the Church, protected industries, developed ships and ports, and introduced uniform currency and measurement laws, making France a strong nation. Thus, Louis XI expanded French borders and founded absolute monarchy.
Henry IV (1589-1610)
In the 16th century, religious wars’ anarchy further strengthened absolute monarchy. Henry IV is famous not only as a great king in French history but also as a popular ruler. He founded the Bourbon dynasty, which ruled France for two centuries. His most important task was restoring royal sovereignty.
Louis XIII and Cardinal Richelieu
After Henry IV, Louis XIII became ruler in 1617 upon reaching majority. Lacking administrative ability, he benefited from Cardinal Richelieu’s invaluable services. Richelieu was appointed prime minister in 1624 and served until 1642. His two goals: make the king sovereign in France and France supreme in Europe. Richelieu suppressed feudal lords and Calvinist Protestants (Huguenots) to establish the king’s absolute power. He refused to convene the Estates-General, granting the king freedom to make, enforce laws, impose taxes, and spend. Thus, Richelieu became the chief architect of absolute monarchy.
After Richelieu’s death, during Louis XIV’s (1643-1715) minority, Cardinal Mazarin governed until 1661. He continued Richelieu’s policies. As a Catholic, Richelieu supported Protestants in the Thirty Years’ War (1618-1648). Under Louis XIV, absolute monarchy reached its zenith. He famously said, “I am the state.” Richelieu and Mazarin’s efforts strengthened absolute monarchy. However, the French Revolution (1789) under Louis XVI (1774-1793) ended absolute royal power.
Other Absolute National States
Prussia
Prussia’s rise occurred in the 17th and 18th centuries. The Duchy of Brandenburg formed its base, evolving into an empire. In the 17th century, Frederick William (1640-1688), known as the “Great Elector,” became Prussia’s ruler. Through administrative reforms, he strengthened Prussia and established absolute monarchy. He exempted farmers working barren lands from taxes for six years post-Thirty Years’ War and encouraged government-controlled factories. He organized a vast army and abolished popular provincial estates. Among Prussian rulers, Frederick the Great (1740-1786) is most notable, under whom Prussia’s development peaked.
Portugal
Portugal was initially part of Castile but became independent in 1095. Castilian kings continued attempts to annex it. In 1385, Portugal’s King John I, with English archers’ help, defeated Castile’s king, establishing independent Portugal. Subsequent capable rulers included “Henry the Navigator,” who promoted maritime expeditions and geographical discoveries. Under his plan, Vasco da Gama reached India via the Cape of Good Hope. By 1500, through rulers’ efforts, new inventions, and discoveries, Portugal became a major national state in European politics. However, in 1580, Spain’s Philip II annexed Portugal into Spain.
Germany
The Holy Roman Empire was extremely important in European history. Initially including central and western Europe, Poland, Italy, Burgundy, and Hungary, these states later became independent. By the late 15th century, Germany became the Holy Roman Empire. Though the emperor was religiously supreme, his political position was weak. Germany was divided into about 300 principalities, rife with mutual jealousy. The emperor couldn’t control feudal lords, causing Germany to lag in the race for national monarchies.
In the late 15th century, nationalist sentiments grew in Germany. The Habsburg dynasty was the most powerful, with its princes long elected as emperors. Maximilian became emperor in 1493 and ruled until 1519. However, feudal lords’ selfishness and lack of a standing army made his reforms ineffective. Maximilian married the Netherlands’ princess and his son Philip I to Spain’s Joanna, but German empire’s national unification saw no significant progress.
Italy
At the end of the Middle Ages, Italy completely lacked unity. Divided into many states, they were constantly at war due to mutual enmity. France and Spain exploited this division to attempt control over Italy. Major states included Milan, Venice, Florence, Naples, and Rome.
Turkey
In the early 15th century, Turks began conquering the Holy Roman Empire’s eastern parts. In 1453, Muhammad II captured Constantinople, ending the Eastern Roman Empire. Later, his grandson Selim conquered Iran, Syria, and Egypt, establishing a vast Turkish empire. Selim died in 1520. Under his son Suleiman, the Turkish empire reached its height.
Russia
On the eve of the modern era, Russia lacked central power and was weakened by internal feudal conflicts, invasions from Denmark, Norway, and Tatars. While Renaissance waves flowed in Western Europe in the 16th century, Russia remained untouched. However, in the early 16th century, Ivan the Great (1462-1505) ended Tatar Muslim rule, establishing the Muscovite absolute empire. He adopted the title “Tsar,” meaning supreme independent ruler in Russian. After Ivan the Great, Ivan the Terrible (1533-1584) expanded tsarist power and Russian borders. Thus, in the 16th century, Russia joined the ranks of national states.
After Ivan the Terrible’s death (1584), Russia faced civil war and anarchy until 1613. In 1613, Russian nobles appointed 16-year-old Michael Romanov as Tsar. The Romanov dynasty ruled until the Russian Revolution (1917).
Bohemia, Hungary, Poland, and Lithuania
Bohemia was traditionally part of the Holy Roman Empire. Kings were elected, and feudal lords chose foreign princes, leading Bohemia under Hungary. However, various difficulties prevented national state establishment in Hungary. The Turks’ victory in 1547 partitioned Hungary.
Poland and Lithuania declared independence from the Holy Roman Empire, but feudal mutual opposition hindered nationalism’s development.
Norway, Denmark, and Sweden
Norway, Denmark, and Sweden were major northwestern European states. From 1397, Denmark’s king ruled Norway and Sweden. In 1523, Sweden gained independence, but Denmark retained dominance over Norway. In the early 16th century, all three states moved toward establishing absolute monarchies.
Decline of National States
The rise of nation-states did not bring peace to Europe. National kings, supported by the middle class, waged wars to end feudal conflicts and establish internal peace, but national and dynastic wars followed. Increasing war expenses led to higher taxes, sparking conflicts between monarchies and emerging social forces.
In the late 18th century, demands for popular governments weakened absolutism’s roots. People opposed kings’ unlimited powers and unjust laws. Opponents included classes that previously supported strong kings. The public demanded participation in royal power and curbs on absolute rights. This conflict first emerged in England. Later, the American Revolution (1775-1783) and French Revolution (1789) dealt severe blows to absolutism.
The rise of nation-states yielded positive results too. Feudalism ended, economic development increased production, new technical systems developed, and nations’ boundaries became more definite and rational. Most importantly, modern national consciousness is a legacy of absolute monarchies.
