After the failure of the Great Revolt of 1857, the East India Company’s rule in India ended, and the British government attempted to pacify the Indian populace through reforms. To completely eliminate the possibilities of rebellion, the British not only changed the character of the Indian army but also rewarded the princes, maharajas, feudal lords, and zamindars who supported them, making radical changes in their policy. The practice of annexing princely states, principalities, and zamindaries was stopped, and the right to adoption was restored. Interference in religious matters was halted, but there was no change in the exploitation of peasants, artisans, craftsmen, and merchants. The British left no stone unturned in efforts that could lead Indians to work toward dismantling the British Empire. Nevertheless, modern nationalism emerged and developed in India, more balanced and organized than before.
Background of Indian Nationalism
Antiquity of Indian Nationalism
Indian nationalism is a contentious field where finding a dialectical middle path acceptable to all is difficult. English historians initially denied the existence of nationality in India. In 1883, J.R. Seeley described India merely as a ‘geographical expression’ with no sense of nationality. In 1884, John Strachey told former Cambridge University students that the first and most important thing to know about India was that ‘India neither is one nor ever was one.’
However, when Indian nationalism emerged powerfully in the late 19th century and early 20th century, the British sought to claim credit for it. They argued that industrialization, urbanization, and print capitalism boosted nationalism in India. The authors of the Montagu-Chelmsford Report claimed: “Politically minded Indians are intellectually our own children. They have adopted the ideas we presented to them, and the credit should go to us.” Copland clearly wrote: “Indian nationalism was the offspring of British rule.” Thus, most historians of Indian nationalism argue that a modern political nation in India did not exist before British rule.
Yet, national consciousness in India has existed since the Vedic period. The Earth Sukta in the Atharvaveda glorifies Mother Earth—‘mātā bhūmiḥ putro’haṃ pṛthivyāḥ’ (Earth is the mother, and I am the son of the Earth). The Vishnupurana reaches the pinnacle of devotion to the nation, praising India as ‘heaven on earth’:
अत्रापि भारतं श्रेष्ठं जम्बूद्वीपे महामुने।
यतो हि कर्मभूरेषा ह्यतोऽन्या भोगभूमयः।।
गायन्ति देवाः किल गीतकानि धन्यास्तु ते भारतभूमि भागे।
स्वर्गापवर्गास्पदमार्गभूते भवन्ति भूयः पुरुषाः सुरत्वात्।।
Similarly, the Vayupurana calls India the unique land of action, while the Bhagavatapurana describes it as the ‘most sacred land’ in the world, where even gods desire to take birth. Texts like the Mahabharata, Garuda Purana, Ramayana, and others extol the glory of India, declaring the mother and motherland greater than heaven. However, the birth and development of nationalism in India was not a new or unfamiliar process.
Modern Nationalism
It is said that Indian nationalism originated from ‘traditional patriotism’ in the pre-colonial period. Long before political struggles for power, Indian society began imagining its nationhood in a private cultural sphere, even when the state was in colonial hands. Here, it contemplated sovereignty in its own domain and constructed an Indian modernity that was modern but not Western.
In the early 19th century, regional sentiments developed in India, defining homeland as desh, vatan, or nadu, with identities gradually forming alongside regional languages and religious affiliations. Various means of communication broke isolation. The Mughal Empire’s political legitimacy was accepted across the country, seen as a land of both Hindus and Muslims, with cultural barriers dissolved by trade and regular pilgrimages. When the East India Company established dominance, mutual patriotism fragmented into numerous resistance actions, culminating in the 1857 Revolt. Post-revolt, rapid spread of education, development of railways and telegraph, and colonial institutions created employment opportunities, gradually shaping modern politics. Though old ‘patriotism’ did not vanish entirely, it was reshaped to create a new colonial modernity distinct from Western modernity.
Causes of the Rise of Modern Nationalism
In reality, the rise of modern nationalism in India was extremely complex and multifaceted, as India was a pluralistic society with multiple voices in Indian nationalism. Since India was not a structured nation but one under construction, different classes, groups, communities, and regions interpreted the nation in varied and sometimes contradictory ways. These groups with conflicting interests had multiple identities—class, caste, religious, etc. At different historical junctures, various identities found expression and interacted. When colonial power intensified these conflicts, Indian nationalists attempted to unite disparate groups under unified leadership. Consequently, the Indian national movement became a mass movement. Thus, modern Indian nationalism fundamentally emerged as a response to foreign domination.
Western Ideas and Education
Western ideology and education played a significant role in the rise of Indian nationalism. Though the purpose of this education was to colonize the minds of educated Indians and instill loyalty, Indians selectively used and adapted this knowledge of dominance to critique colonialism.
It is true that levels of this critical consciousness varied among Indian groups due to uneven education spread. For instance, in the three coastal presidencies—Bengal, Bombay, and Madras—education was more widespread than in northern central regions. Even within presidencies, some communities advanced more: in Bengal, the bhadralok (mainly Brahmins, Kayasthas, and Vaidyas) monopolized higher education; in Bombay, it was limited to Chitpavan Brahmins and Parsis; in Madras, to Tamil Brahmins and Iyengars. Bengalis were far ahead of Odias, Biharis, and Assamese; Marathi-speaking areas ahead of Gujarati; Tamil areas ahead of Telugu and Malayalam. Hindus were far ahead of Muslims, and among Hindus, lower castes and untouchables largely remained deprived.
This variation in education spread impacted political activity levels—presidencies with higher education were more vocal politically. Western education exposed more students to ideological influences. If English education aimed to foster loyalty, it also connected Indians to modern Western ‘rational and democratic ideas.’ This ‘modern politics’ included citizenship, state, civil society, public sphere, human rights, equality before law, individual, public-private distinction, subject concept, people, popular sovereignty, social justice, scientific rationality, etc.
It is not entirely accurate that Indian national sentiment was a nurtured child of Western education. However, due to Western education and ideas, Indians adopted a modern, rational, secular, democratic, and nationalist political outlook. They studied, admired, and emulated contemporary European nationalist movements. Rousseau, Paine, John Stuart Mill, and others became political guides; Mazzini, Garibaldi, and Irish nationalists became ideals. This system enabled educated Indians to lead the national movement using Western ideas, giving it a democratic and modern direction.
National Awakening and Reform Movements
The national movement was not a product of the modern education system but arose from conflicts between British and Indian interests. Growing racial tensions, fear of conversions, and Benthamite administrators’ reformist zeal forced educated Indians to deeply examine their own culture. They now represented their culture as a concrete entity for citation, comparison, reference, and specific uses. This new cultural project expressed through 19th-century social and religious reforms, termed ‘cultural awakening.’
Its aim was to purify Indian culture and rediscover arguments aligning it with European ideals of rationalism, empiricism, monotheism, and individualism. It sought to show Indian civilization was not inferior to Western but superior in spiritual achievements. Thus, it aimed to build a modern national culture that was not Western.
Raja Ram Mohan Roy and his Brahmo Samaj inspired Indians to embrace new ideas of subjecthood and freedom. Swami Dayananda Saraswati and his Arya Samaj opposed evils in Hindu religion and society while instilling national consciousness. Young monk Vivekananda propagated Indian culture in Europe and America, awakening cultural consciousness. Pride in Indian civilization’s spiritual core versus Western materialism helped Indians reorganize personal lives with dignity and inspired confronting colonial power in the emerging public sphere. It provided ideological foundation for late-19th-century nationalism.
This ideology was not free of contradictions, as pride in spiritual heritage often degenerated into uncritical support of past customs. This invention of Indian tradition ignored the long Muslim rule to present an idealized Hindu tradition in ancient Sanskrit texts. It united Hindus against foreign rule but alienated Muslims, non-Brahmins, and untouchables. This puzzle of Hindu revivalism is seen as the birthplace of communalism.
Historical Exploration and Research
In the early 19th century, Indians had little knowledge of their ancient history due to lack of historiography tradition. But relentless efforts by European orientalists like William Jones (Asiatic Society of Bengal), James Prinsep, Alexander Cunningham, Max Müller, Wilson, Monier Williams, Roth, Sassoon, and Ferguson, along with archaeological excavations, removed centuries-old veils from India’s ancient great culture and history. James Prinsep in 1837 first deciphered Brahmi and Kharosthi scripts, reading ‘Piyadassi’ (Priyadarshi) on inscriptions and coins.
These discoveries restored ancient India’s culture and greatness. Nationalist writers like R.G. Bhandarkar, R.L. Mitra, and Swami Vivekananda reinterpreted India’s ancient cultural heritage, strengthening national sentiments. Scholars like Sir William Jones, Max Müller, Jacobi, Colebrooke, A.B. Keith, Burnouf studied and translated Sanskrit historical texts into English. These Western scholars tirelessly uncovered Indian achievements in art, literature, architecture, music, philosophy, science, and mathematics, highlighting India’s contribution to human civilization. These explorations taught Indians pride in their civilization and culture.
Meanwhile, James Mill laid the foundation of modern Indian historiography, dividing it into ancient, medieval, and modern periods as Hindu, Muslim, and British eras. Mill exaggerated ancient India’s glory, leading many contemporary intellectuals to believe India’s decline stemmed from religious rigidity, superstitions, and fanaticism, not British rule. These intellectuals worked to remove superstitions, evils, and rituals from Indian religion and society.
Economic Exploitation Policies
The primary cause of opposition to British rule was economic discontent and hardships. In the British colonial economy, interests of all classes—peasants, artisans, craftsmen, laborers, intellectuals, educated, and merchants—were sacrificed. Discriminatory policies destroyed Indian industries.
Heavy duties on exported Indian goods and rebates on imports flooded markets with English industrial products, shattering India’s economic structure. Cottage industries’ collapse unemployed millions of artisans. The Governor-General’s 1834-35 report stated their suffering was unparalleled in trade history: “The bones of cotton weavers are bleaching the plains of India.”
British steam and science uprooted agriculture-industry unity across Hindustan. Industry and handicraft decline pushed workers to agriculture, increasing land pressure. Excessive land revenue, zamindar and moneylender exploitation left peasants so destitute that over 75% lacked full meals. In 1900, Sir William Digby wrote that about 100 million in British India never had enough food. Sudden famines worsened conditions. Indians realized foreign rule caused their misery; economic interests would suffer until it ended.
Administrative Unification
After 1707, order and political unity vanished in India, but British imperialism bound India’s ancient cultural unity—despite diversities—into a new political unity. From Himalayas to Cape Comorin, all India came under one government, establishing peace and order with political unity. Uniform judicial framework, codified criminal and civil laws applied across the subcontinent. Though British-established unity was of common subjection, it birthed common nationality.
Means of Transport and Communication
The British spread railways and roads nationwide, establishing post, telegraph, telephone. Their aim: swift troop movement to suppress revolts and quick information from remote provinces. These inadvertently unified the country, giving geographical unity tangible form. Distances shrank, travel eased, contacts increased, outlooks broadened. Newspapers reached remote areas. Nationalists met easily, corresponded, toured to intensify movements, awakening masses. Integration linked economic interests across regions, boosting nationalism.
Emergence of Middle-Class Intellectuals
British administrative and economic processes created a new middle-class category. They quickly learned English for jobs and respect, reaching near administrators due to education and status. Though backgrounds varied, knowledge, ideas, values were similar. This dynamic middle class became modern India’s soul, later infusing its power nationwide. It led the Indian national movement.
Role of Press and Literature
Rapid print culture spread nationalist ideas across the subcontinent. Newspapers, journals, pamphlets, nationalist literature facilitated idea exchange among leaders. By 1875, ~400 Indian-owned papers in English and vernaculars had ~150,000 readers. They removed internal barriers, promoted inter-regional solidarity. Lord Lytton’s 1878 control on vernacular press to curb criticism and nationalism failed; developed press created a class steeped in Western values, science, reason, liberalism, democracy. Press educated masses, mirrored Indian nationalism. Free press and foreign rule are incompatible—true for Indian papers.
Press foundation: 1780 ‘Bengal Gazette’; true journalism: Raja Ram Mohan Roy’s ‘Sambad Kaumudi.’ Strict control until 1834; post-1832 British reforms, Metcalfe lifted in 1835. Vernacular press boomed. Key papers: Bangdoot, Prabhakar, Hindu Patriot, Indian Mirror, Amrita Bazar Patrika, Public Opinion, Brahmo, Bengali, Som Prakash, Comrade, New Indian, Kesari, Nav Vibhakar, Sulabh Samachar, Sanjivani, Sadharani, Hitvani, Rast Goftar, Bombay Samachar, Indu Prakash, Jame Jamshed, Maratha, Dnyan Prakash, Kesari, Bangalore, Aryadarshan, Bandhav, Hindu, Standard, Swadesh Mitra, Tribune, Herald, Advocate, etc. By 1877: 644 papers.
Novels, essays, poems, stories, patriotic poetry awakened national consciousness. Bengali: Rabindranath Tagore, Bankim Chandra Chatterjee, Hemchandra Banerjee; Marathi: Vishnu Shastri Chiplunkar; Assamese: Lakshminath Bezbarua; Gujarati: Narmad; Tamil: Subramania Bharati; Hindi: Bharatendu Harishchandra; Urdu: Altaf Hussain Hali. These writers promoted freedom, equality, unity, fraternity, nationality through literature.
Racial Arrogance and Discrimination
A secondary but important cause: racial superiority and discrimination. European policy based on: one European life equals many Indians; Indians understand only fear and punishment; Europeans came for self-interest, not public good. Post-1857 British viewed Indians as half-ape, half-Negro, controllable by fear—like General Neill’s terror.
Discrimination evident in disputes: courts favored Europeans. G.O. Trevelyan (1864): “One countryman’s statement outweighs many Indians’—powerful tool for dishonest Englishmen.” Amrita Bazar Patrika cited cases where European murderers escaped punishment. Juries from cities (victor race) refused convicting Europeans for Indian murders. Unpunished killings: soldier killed cook for not procuring woman. Planter assault juries favored accused. If convicted, public condemned, funds raised, petitions for release.
This racial bias treated all Indians equally inferior regardless of caste, religion, province, class. Indians barred from European hotels, clubs, parks; often railway compartments. Racial bitterness and national humiliation united Indians as one people, fostering nationality.
Discrimination in Government Jobs
1833 Charter Act and 1858 Queen Victoria’s Proclamation stated appointments by merit, but violated in practice. Government avoided employing educated Indians, breeding discontent. Systematic exclusion from high posts, especially ICS. Entry age 21, exam in England/English—difficult for Indians. If passed, dismissed on pretexts: Surendranath Banerjea (1869) sacked for minor error; Arvind Ghosh (1877) denied for poor horsemanship. Officials invented excuses to bar Indians.
Reactionary Government Policies
Late 19th century: British curtailed educated Indians’ rights. Started with conversion fears, boosted by 1850 Lex Loci Act allowing converts ancestral property. 1861 Indian Councils Act allowed limited non-official Indian members but no bills without Governor-General’s permission; he had veto. Heavy spending on army, home charges, imperial works; but 1870 Bengal English education cut disappointed youth. 1870s judicial reforms introduced limited election but 1876 reduced civil service age to 19; India exam demand unmet.
Lord Lytton’s biggest attack: 1878 Vernacular Press Act sparked nationwide agitation; Arms Act criminalized unlicensed arms for Indians. During south India famine, lavish Delhi Durbar for Victoria’s ‘Empress of India’ title. Paper: “While Rome burned, Nero fiddled.” Exported 8 million pounds wheat amid starvation. Afghan invasion cost poor Indians 2 crore sterling. Such anti-people policies bred discontent.
Ilbert Bill Controversy
Liberal Lord Ripon’s Ilbert Bill to end judicial racial discrimination allowed Indian magistrates to try Europeans. Europeans formed ‘European Defence Association,’ raised ~150,000 rupees, agitated in India/England. Opposition from non-officials and officials like Bengal Lt. Governor Rivers Thompson (ignored racial differences). Henry Cotton: Calcutta plot to bind Ripon, send to England—known to Governor, Police Commissioner. January 1884: Ripon yielded, amended bill.
Ilbert controversy made educated Indians painfully aware of subjection in imperial structure, teaching organized agitation’s value and inspiring unity. It highlighted need for all-India political organization—fulfilled by 1885 Indian National Congress foundation.
Contemporary Foreign Events
19th century: era of nationalism, liberalism, imperialism. 1830/1848 French Revolutions awakened sacrifice spirit. Italy/Greece independence extraordinarily boosted enthusiasm. Balkan anti-Turkish nationalist movements; Ireland’s anti-British struggle influenced Indians. Italy, Germany, Romania, Serbia political movements; England reform acts; American independence war inspired courage for freedom struggle.
Thus, Indian nationalism born from British policies. Two opposing views of British imperialism—evolutionary and reactionary—both aided nationalism’s birth. British rule established political unity, spread Western education, developed transport/communication. Benefited British but indirectly aided nationalism.
Evolutionary aspect indirectly contributed; reactionary accelerated. Economic exploitation, discrimination, job bias, press curbs, imperial wars, Arms Act clarified to educated leaders: British rule against India’s interests.
