From the fourth decade of the 19th century, modern educated intellectuals in Bengal, Bombay, and Madras began establishing numerous political associations to spread national consciousness. Although these organizations were local in nature and lacked any concrete program, they not only highlighted the discriminatory policies and exploitative practices of British rule but also propagated democratic principles. Through petitions and representations, they demanded administrative reforms, proper Indian participation in governance, and the spread of education in India. These provincial associations gave momentum and strength to nationalist consciousness against British imperialism.
Raja Ram Mohan Roy was the first Indian leader who attempted to draw British attention to Indian grievances and demanded their redressal. He initiated a mild constitutional movement demanding freedom of the press, separation of powers, trial by jury, and Indianisation of government services.
Bangabhasha Prakasika Sabha
In 1836, Gaurishankar Tarkabagish, an associate and follower of Raja Ram Mohan Roy, established the first political organization in Bengal called **Bangabhasha Prakasika Sabha**. Its main objectives were to review administrative activities, submit petitions for reforms, and awaken the people about their political rights.
Other notable associations of this period included the Academic Association, Sadharan Gyan Sabha(Calcutta, 1838), Patriotic Association (Calcutta, 1839), and Students Literary and Scientific Society (Bombay), all working to spread democratic awareness among Indians.
Zamindari Association (Landholders’ Society)
The Zamindari Association, also known as the Landholders’ Society, established in Calcutta on 19 March 1838, was one of the earliest organizations. It was founded by both British and Indian landlords, merchants, lawyers, and editors including Prasanna Kumar Thakur, Raja Radhakanta Deb, Raja Kalikrishna, Dwarkanath Tagore, Ramkamal Sen, Theodore Dickens, William Cobb Harry, William Theobald, and G.A. Prinsep. Its primary goal was to protect the interests of all types of zamindars. Though limited in scope, it was the first organization to initiate organized political consciousness and use constitutional methods to redress grievances. It demanded the use of Bengali in courts, reduction of stamp duties, and stopping the practice of sending Indian indentured labourers to Mauritius. The society also collaborated with the British India Society in England.
Bengal British India Society
At the insistence of Dwarkanath Tagore, George Thompson from England visited India in 1842 to organize an anti-slavery movement. Along with Tarachand Chakravarti, Krishnamohan Banerjee, and Alexander Duff, he founded the **Bengal British India Society** on 20 April 1843. Its aim was to awaken nationalist feelings among Indians and promote political education. The society worked to address the difficulties faced by all sections of society under British rule and find solutions.
British Indian Association
The first attempt to create an all-India platform occurred in 1851. The Landholders’ Society and Bengal British India Society merged to form the British Indian Association on 28 October 1851 to present a joint memorandum to the British Parliament. Prominent leaders included Radhakanta Deb (President), Devendranath Tagore (Secretary), Rajendralal Mitra, Gopalrao Ghosh, Pyare Chand Mitra, and Harish Chandra Mukherjee.
In 1852, the association sent its first memorandum demanding political rights, inclusion of Indians in legislative councils, holding ICS examinations in India, abolition of salt tax, excise duty, and postage, and greater autonomy for provincial governments. Partly accepting these suggestions, the Charter Act of 1853 provided for six additional members in the Governor-General’s Legislative Council.
Later, prominent personalities like Vyomesh Chandra Banerjee, Shambhuchandra Mukherjee, Ramesh Chandra Dutt, and Bankim Chandra Chattopadhyay joined the association. It continued into the 20th century before being overshadowed by the Indian National Congress.
Encouraged by Devendranath Tagore, similar associations were formed in Bombay, Poona, and Madras: Deccan Association(Poona, 1852), Madras Native Association, and Bombay Association(1852). All these associations openly condemned the Revolt of 1857 and declared loyalty to the British.
Bombay Association
The first political association in Bombay, the Bombay Association, was established on 26 August 1852 on the model of the British Indian Association. It aimed to suggest reforms against discriminatory government rules. However, it disintegrated around 1861.
On 14 December 1867, Vinayakrao Jagannathji Shankarsheth, Mangaldas Nathubhai, and Naoroji Furdunji revived it. The revived association raised demands for conducting civil service examinations in India, appointing Indians to higher posts, and financial reforms. Due to its moderate and conciliatory policies, dissatisfied youth led by western-educated leaders like Mahadev Govind Ranade, Pherozeshah Mehta, and K.T. Telang broke away and formed the **Town Association** in 1871.
East India Association
Along with organizations in India, Indians in London also formed associations. In 1865, Indian merchants and students established the London India Society. Its prominent members included Dadabhai Naoroji (Grand Old Man of India), Pherozeshah Mehta, Gyanendramohan Tagore, and H. Pestonji.
In 1866, Dadabhai Naoroji founded the East India Association in London, which absorbed the London India Society. Non-Indians could also become members. Its purpose was to inform the British public about Indian problems and build public opinion in favour of India. However, the association lasted only until 1883 as it lost Indian support after backing the controversial Ilbert Bill.
Swadeshi Mela (National Exhibition)
To counter economic exploitation caused by British industrialization, Rajnarayan Bose and Nabagopal Mitra (known as National Mitra) started the Swadeshi Mela (also called Hindu Mela or Chaitra Mela) in Bengal in 1867 to promote indigenous industries and the use of swadeshi goods. The idea soon spread to Lahore, Bombay, and Hindi-speaking regions.
Bharatendu Harishchandra (9 September 1850 – 6 January 1885)
Inspired by the Swadeshi Mela, the renowned litterateur from Banaras, Bharatendu Harishchandra, published a pledge in his magazine Kavivachan Sudha on 23 March 1874:
“From this day onwards, we will not wear any foreign cloth. We will use the clothes already purchased until worn out, but will never buy new foreign cloth and will only wear cloth made in Hindustan.”
Poona Sarvajanik Sabha
On 2 April 1870, Mahadev Govind Ranade founded the Poona Sarvajanik Sabha in Poona, the old capital of Maratha culture. Key members included Ganesh Vasudev Joshi and S.H. Sathe. While Ranade was famous for his scholarship, Joshi was loved for his simple leadership and was affectionately called Sarvajanik Kaka. The Sabha gained immense popularity through swadeshi promotion, famine relief, and spreading political awareness. However, due to its middle-class character, representation of landlords and merchants, and moderate stance toward British rule, it failed to represent the masses.
Social Change by 1870
By 1870, signs of transformation were visible in Indian society. Higher education had taken firm root in the three presidency towns—Bengal, Bombay, and Madras—creating a new public ready for broader and more popular organizations.
On 25 September 1875, Babu Shishir Kumar Ghosh formed the **Indian League** in Bengal to awaken nationalism and promote political education. On 26 July 1876, it was replaced by the Indian Association of Calcutta.
Indian Association of Calcutta
The most important pre-Congress nationalist organization was the Indian Association of Calcutta. Young nationalists were frustrated with the conservative, landlord-dominated policies of the British Indian Association. They found a dynamic leader in Surendranath Banerjee, who had been unjustly dismissed from the Indian Civil Service.
On 26 July 1876, Surendranath Banerjee, Anand Mohan Bose, and others founded the Indian Association of Calcutta at Albert Hall with the declared aim of representing the people and uniting Indians on political issues. Branches were opened across Bengal and beyond. By criticizing unjust government actions, it laid the foundation for the Indian National Congress.
In 1876–77, the Association launched the Indian Civil Service Age Reduction Agitation against lowering the maximum age for ICS examination from 21 to 19 years. This movement significantly fostered nationalist consciousness among the educated middle and upper classes.
Despite provisions in the Charter Act of 1853, Queen Victoria’s Proclamation of 1858, and the Indian Civil Services Act of 1861 promising non-discrimination, the British always tried to prevent Indians from entering top services. When Satyendranath Tagore passed in 1863, the age limit was reduced to 21. After Surendranath Banerjee and three others passed in 1869, it was further reduced to 19 in 1877—sparking widespread anger.
Madras Mahajan Sabha
Founded on 17 May 1884 under the presidency of P. Rangaiah Naidu by B. Subrahmanyam Aiyar and P. Ananda Charlu, the Madras Mahajan Sabha aimed to coordinate local organizations. At its conference from 29 December 1884 to 2 January 1885, it demanded expansion of legislative councils, Indian representation, and separation of judiciary from revenue administration.
Bombay Presidency Association
After the old Bombay Association collapsed due to the economic depression of 1878, a new organization—the Bombay Presidency Association—was formed on 31 January 1885 by Pherozeshah Mehta, K.T. Telang, and Badruddin Tyabji. Its goals included holding civil service exams in India and ensuring Indian appointments in government services.
Outside the presidency areas, political life revolved around organizations like the Lahore Indian Association in Punjab and the Allahabad Peoples Association in the United Provinces. By the late 19th century, intellectual awakening and local associations made Indian nationalists realize the need for political unity against foreign rule and exploitation.
Limitations of Early Nationalism
From the 1870s, a major change occurred: old landlord-dominated organizations gave way to new ones led by middle-class professionals. Though demands were sometimes local or regional, their significance was national—representation in legislatures, separation of executive and judiciary, Indianisation of services, simultaneous ICS exams in India and Britain, import duties on cotton goods, reduction in military and foreign war expenditure, and extension of permanent settlement.
Yet many upper-caste Hindu leaders could not fully rise above social conservatism. Their attempts to create nationalist ideology based on a Hindu golden age inspired many but alienated others. Social debates divided the Poona Sarvajanik Sabha into conservative (Bal Gangadhar Tilak) and liberal (Gopal Krishna Gokhale) factions. The Age of Consent Act of 1891, raising the marriage age from 10 to 12, sparked controversy over British interference in Hindu socio-religious matters, linking nationalism with Hindu revivalism and alienating Muslims.
Moreover, upper-caste leaders did little to gain support from lower castes and untouchables. Yet colonial education and Christian missionary work awakened these sections, leading to anti-Brahmin movements in Maharashtra and Madras. Thus, from the very beginning, Indian nationalism faced the complex challenges of diversity and difference.
