Introduction: The Birth of French Absolute Monarchy
The 15th century witnessed the establishment of absolute monarchy in France, but it was the turbulent period from 1559 to 1589 that truly shaped French history. During these three decades, France endured devastating religious civil wars that nearly tore the nation apart. Yet from this chaos emerged one of history’s most remarkable rulers—Henry IV—who would lay the foundation for French absolutism that would dominate Europe for centuries.
The Religious Wars (1559-1589): France on the Brink
Origins of the Conflict
The religious civil wars that engulfed France weren’t just homegrown problems—they were direct consequences of the Reformation movement sweeping through Italy and Europe. The Italian Renaissance sparked a cultural and religious awakening that soon reached French shores.
King Francis I (1515-1547) was deeply influenced by famous Italian humanist scholars and artists like Leonardo da Vinci and Titian. During the first half of his reign, France experienced a cultural renaissance that challenged the established beliefs and traditions of the Roman Catholic Church. Under the leadership of Jacques Lefèvre, the French Reformation movement began shaking Catholicism to its core.
Francis I’s Policy Shift
In the latter part of his reign, Francis I adopted the principle of “one king, one faith, one law.” Initially, he had supported German Lutherans to counter Spanish influence in Europe. However, by his final years, he brutally suppressed the Reformation movement. In 1547, special courts punished religious reformers, destroyed over 20,000 towns and villages, executed more than 3,000 people, and banished thousands from France.
Henry II and the Rise of the Huguenots
Henry II (1547-1559) continued his father’s policy of religious intolerance. He established “Inquisition” religious courts to suppress Calvinists, known in France as Huguenots. However, opposition from the Paris Parlement prevented his plans from fully succeeding.
Henry II had several reasons for persecuting Huguenots. First, their influence had grown tremendously powerful. Second, French citizens and nobles wanted to embrace Calvinism to seize Catholic Church property. Henry also found it intolerable that French Calvinists accepted orders and control from John Calvin in Geneva. These factors led him to sign the Treaty of Cateau-Cambrésis with Spain’s Philip II in 1559, though his untimely death that same year complicated the religious conflict further.
Catherine de Medici and the Power Struggle
After Henry II’s death, his young heirs couldn’t rule effectively, so power fell to his widow, Catherine de Medici. This Italian princess from the famous Medici family served as regent for her three sons: Francis II (1559-1560), Charles IX (1560-1574), and Henry III (1574-1589).
The Noble Factions
Henry II’s death gave French Protestants and nobles an opportunity to increase their power. Two main noble factions emerged:
- The Bourbon Family: Led by Anthony of Navarre and his brother Louis, Duke of Condé, who claimed descent from Saint Louis and supported the Protestant cause.
- The Guise Family: Though not originally French, they claimed ties to the ruling Valois dynasty and championed the Catholic cause.
Catherine de Medici faced an impossible situation. In 1562, she granted Huguenots limited worship rights, trying to balance power between the factions. This satisfied neither group—Huguenots wanted more, while Catholics were outraged.
The Vassy Massacre: Igniting Civil War
In March 1562, soldiers of the Duke of Guise attacked unarmed Protestants during prayer, killing approximately 50 people. Catherine couldn’t punish the Duke due to Catholic support, so Huguenots openly rebelled under the Duke of Condé and Admiral Coligny’s leadership.
This massacre sparked a civil war that burned through France until 1589. Initially, Catholics won victories, but Huguenots maintained their strength and courage. Within a year, both the Duke of Guise and the King of Navarre were assassinated. When Protestant forces reached Paris, Catherine signed the Treaty of Saint-Germain in 1570.
The Treaty of Saint-Germain (1570)
This treaty granted Huguenots:
- Royal recognition
- Limited worship rights
- Removal of employment restrictions
- Four fortified cities for one year
- Marriage between Princess Margaret and young Henry of Navarre
Catherine attempted to reconcile opposing factions, but peace was short-lived.
The St. Bartholomew’s Day Massacre (1572)
When Charles IX, influenced by Admiral Coligny, tried to free himself from Catherine’s control, she found it unbearable. Seeking to eliminate Coligny, she supported the Catholic Duke of Guise. On August 24, 1572—St. Bartholomew’s Day—Catherine orchestrated a conspiracy that resulted in the massacre of Huguenot leaders, including Coligny.
Only two major Huguenot leaders survived: Prince Condé and Henry of Navarre. This horrific massacre split Catholics into two groups:
- Extremist Catholics: Intolerant supporters of the Guise family
- Moderate Catholics (Politiques): Those who wanted Catholic restoration but opposed violence, ultimately supporting Henry of Navarre for national interest
The War of the Three Henrys (1578-1589)
After Charles IX’s death, his brother Henry III (1574-1589) became king. This corrupt and immoral ruler’s reign saw France plunge back into civil war—the famous “War of the Three Henrys.”
Since Henry III’s predecessors died childless, succession became contentious. Moderate Catholics supported Henry of Navarre as the closest Valois relative, but extremist Catholics formed the “Catholic League” backing Henry of Guise, who had support from the Pope and Spain’s Philip II.
The Final Confrontation
Though Henry III held nominal power in 1588-1589, real authority belonged to Henry of Guise. When Henry III called a meeting of the States-General against the Duke, they supported Guise instead. In response, Henry III had the Duke of Guise and his brother, the Cardinal of Lorraine, assassinated in 1588.
When the Catholic League declared Henry III’s orders invalid, he allied with Henry of Navarre. Their combined forces besieged Paris. During this conflict, a fanatical Catholic assassinated Henry III in 1589. Before dying, Henry III declared Henry of Navarre his legitimate successor.
The French people were exhausted from religious civil wars and desperately wanted peace. Seizing this moment, Henry of Navarre became King Henry IV of France in 1589, establishing the Bourbon dynasty in place of the Valois.
Henry IV (1589-1610): The Great Rebuilder
Henry IV used his skill and dedication not only to establish peace and order in France but also to restore French prestige internationally. This is why French history remembers him not just as a great king but as a beloved “popular king.” He founded the Bourbon dynasty, which would rule France for two hundred years and provide Europe with some of its most powerful monarchs.
The Challenges Facing Henry IV
When Henry became king in 1589, he faced enormous problems:
- Religious Opposition: As a Huguenot, France’s Catholic majority refused to accept him, and Spain’s Philip II was supporting French Catholics.
- Noble Rebellion: After years of civil war, nobles had gained dangerous independence and power. They defied royal authority and plotted against the crown.
- Economic Devastation: Twenty years of civil war had ruined France’s economy. Agriculture was destroyed, industry had stopped growing, and bandits terrorized the countryside.
- Administrative Failure: Without sovereign government, fear, anarchy, disorder, and chaos reigned throughout France.
Henry IV’s Solutions
Henry IV used determination, patience, strength, talent, courage, and efficiency to address France’s problems and strengthen the monarchy.
Religious Conversion (1593)
To win French public opinion, Henry abandoned his personal religious beliefs and converted to Catholicism in July 1593. His famous pragmatic statement reportedly was: “Paris is well worth a Mass.” This conversion convinced several cities and provinces to accept his leadership. When the Spanish army protecting Paris found local support shifting to Henry, they had to withdraw. The Pope also recognized Henry’s conversion. In 1598, Henry signed the Treaty of Vervins with Spain, ending Spanish interference in France.
The Edict of Nantes (1598)
Henry’s conversion satisfied Catholics but angered his Protestant allies. Huguenots believed a king who changed religions couldn’t protect another faith. To satisfy them, Henry issued the Edict of Nantes on April 13, 1598, granting Huguenots religious freedom.
Key provisions included:
- Worship rights in approximately 200 towns and 3,500 fortresses
- Permission to establish schools and colleges with government support
- Freedom to publish books
- Exemption from military service obligations
- Government funding for their activities
- Broad citizenship rights enabling government employment
- Huguenot judges appointed to France’s supreme court (Parlement)
- Autonomous judicial authority for certain cases
- 75 fortresses and military towns for security, with soldiers paid from the royal treasury
This edict extended until 1612, giving Huguenots substantial religious freedom and rights. For that era of religious intolerance, this religious tolerance was a commendable achievement. The edict ended devastating civil war and proved that Catholic and Protestant faiths couldn’t be eliminated from Europe. It demonstrated for the first time that multiple religious communities could exist under one monarchy.
Criticisms of the Edict:
- Catholics called it too liberal
- Protestants deemed it insufficient
- It gave extensive rights to less than one-tenth of the population (Huguenots) while denying them to other groups
- It strengthened Huguenot nobles’ power and independence, promoting decentralization
- It essentially created an independent state within France, a problem Cardinal Richelieu would later address
Establishing Strong Monarchy
The civil wars had created dangerous factionalism threatening monarchy’s development. French nobles had built tremendous power, and Henry IV initially tried reconciliation. When that failed, he used suppression. He made the powerful lord Biron a marshal, duke, and governor of Burgundy to win his trust, but when Biron’s conspiracies continued, Parlement declared him a traitor and executed him. By eliminating opponents, Henry IV established strong absolutist monarchy.
Reform Programs
After consolidating power, Henry IV worked to revive France economically, politically, and socially. He appointed his Huguenot friend Sully (later Duke of Sully in 1606) as finance minister. As historian Hayes wrote: “It was France’s good fortune to have two individuals like Henry IV and Sully.” Sully’s loyalty, enthusiasm, efficiency, and talent deeply impressed Henry IV. Despite their character differences, they successfully worked together for France’s advancement.
Economic and Administrative Reforms
Duke of Sully first tackled corruption in the ravaged revenue department with strict policies:
- Audited financial accounts
- Appointed state revenue collection officers
- Dismissed unnecessary employees
- Appointed new state officials in each province to control provincial governors, who reported directly to the king
- Fixed royal and military expenditures
Agricultural Promotion
To develop agriculture, new farming systems were encouraged with the goal of making France Europe’s premier agricultural nation:
- Converted marshland and wasteland to farmland
- Improved irrigation with proper canal systems
- Implemented adequate farmer protection measures
- Eliminated internal customs duties
- Improved livestock breeds for milk production
- Removed all export taxes on crops
Henry’s efforts quickly made France a major agricultural producer. His slogan was: “A chicken in every peasant’s pot on Sunday.”
Industry and Trade Improvements
Though Sully had little interest in industry and trade, Henry IV showed foresight by making every effort to develop these sectors:
- Developed Lyon and Nîmes silk industries
- Promoted glass, pottery, wool, and iron industries in Paris and Nevers
- Renovated roads, bridges, and canals for trade
- Made commercial treaties with Turkey, England, and Holland
- Created a state shipping fleet and navy to break Spanish trade monopoly
These policies quickly increased French trade. As Hayes noted: “The remarkable progress of Paris and Lyon actually began during Henry IV’s reign.”
Henry’s efforts led to French trading posts opening in India and North America, gradually succeeding in breaking Spanish commercial monopoly.
Henry IV’s Foreign Policy
Henry’s foreign policy was as clear and logical as his domestic policy, with two main objectives:
- Diminish the prestige of Spain and Austria’s Habsburg dynasty
- Establish French and Bourbon dynasty prestige in European politics
Ending Spanish Interference
Spain was France’s main rival and natural enemy for several reasons:
- France was surrounded by Spanish and Austrian Habsburg territories, threatening national security
- Spanish armies occupied Paris during France’s civil wars
When Henry converted to Catholicism, Paris’s Catholic population supported him, forcing Spain to withdraw its troops from Paris.
The Franco-Spanish War (1595-1598)
After the civil war ended, Henry declared war on Spain in 1595. This war continued until 1598, ending with the Treaty of Vervins, which essentially repeated the Treaty of Cateau-Cambrésis. Thus, Henry IV successfully ended Spanish interference in France.
Protecting French Borders
Since France’s borders were surrounded by Habsburg states, Henry IV attempted to:
- Organize nations opposing Spain and Austria—Germany, Holland, Italy, and northern European states
- Destroy Habsburg family supremacy
- Establish a new European system called the “League of Nations” for peaceful problem resolution (though this attempt failed)
To establish French influence in northern Italy, Henry married Marie de Medici from Tuscany’s famous Medici family in 1600. He made treaties with Savoy in 1601 and Venice in 1607. Spain recognized Henry IV’s accession to the throne. Except for Milan, he ended Habsburg influence throughout northern Italy.
Supporting Protestant States
To undermine the Habsburg family, Henry IV began supporting Protestant states fearful of the Austrian Emperor or German Emperor’s influence:
- Encouraged Turkey to attack Austria
- In 1609, when succession civil war erupted in the German territories of Jülich and Cleves, Henry IV supported Protestants
War with Austrian and Spanish Habsburg nations seemed imminent, but on May 14, 1610, a fanatical Catholic named Ravaillac assassinated Henry IV.
Henry IV’s Legacy
Though Henry IV wasn’t personally of high moral character, he’s remembered for his integrity and profound love for his country. He possessed courage, bravery, and immense patience. The seventeen assassination attempts against him made him popular with the people. He treated religion merely as a tool for political necessity, converting himself for national security. Even after becoming Catholic, he carefully protected Protestant interests, thus finding a satisfactory solution to the religious problem.
When Henry assumed the throne, France was in ruins, but through tireless effort, he not only established France’s national glory but also organized the nation. As a skilled diplomat, he clarified French foreign policy, but his untimely death plunged France back into crisis. France only escaped this crisis 15 years later when Henry IV’s successor, Louis XIII, appointed Richelieu as his prime minister.
Louis XIII (1610-1643)
After Henry IV’s untimely death, his son Louis XIII became king at age nine. Louis XIII’s reign can be divided into two parts: first, under the regency of Henry IV’s widow, Marie de Medici, and second, when as an adult, Louis XIII took direct control and appointed Cardinal Richelieu as his prime minister and advisor.
Marie de Medici’s Regency (1610-1617)
Because Louis XIII was a minor, he ruled under Marie de Medici’s regency from 1610 to 1617. This princess from Florence’s famous Medici family was ambitious but incompetent.
Marie de Medici’s Disastrous Policies
Marie de Medici abandoned Henry IV’s domestic policy principles and undid his reforms:
- Immediately dismissed Sully and appointed Italians as advisors
- Her extreme Catholic policy and Sully’s dismissal angered Huguenots
- Her appointment of Italian advisors enraged Catholics
- Nobles rebelled for their rights
To appease rebellious nobles, Marie misused funds Sully had accumulated, emptying France’s treasury. To address the economic crisis, she called a States-General session in 1614, but ultimately “locked the assembly hall doors.” The session’s failure created conditions for civil war.
Marie de Medici abandoned Henry IV’s foreign policy and attempted friendship with Spain. Ignoring national interests, she married Louis XIII to Anne of Austria, daughter of Spain’s Philip III, in 1615, and married French Princess Elizabeth to Spain’s Crown Prince Philip. These anti-national actions naturally caused dissatisfaction among the French people. France’s internal situation deteriorated, and internationally, France became viewed as Spain’s puppet.
France stood on the brink of civil war, but in 1617, Louis XIII came of age, took control of government, and dismissed his mother and her favorite officials. Thus began the second phase of Louis XIII’s reign, practically led by his prime minister, Cardinal Richelieu.
Louis XIII’s Second Phase (1617-1643)
Louis XIII lacked administrative ability and skill. He loved music and hunting. It seemed the dream of French advancement that Henry IV and Sully had envisioned couldn’t be realized. However, France was fortunate that in 1624, Louis XIII appointed Cardinal Richelieu as prime minister and entrusted him with complete governmental responsibility. Cardinal Richelieu faithfully and diligently fulfilled this responsibility for the next 18 years.
Cardinal Richelieu (1624-1642): The Iron Minister
Richelieu was born in 1585 in Paris to a noble family from Poitou. After receiving religious education, he became Bishop of Luçon at age 21. In 1614, he represented the clergy at the States-General assembly. Impressed by his talent, eloquence, personality, and conduct, Marie de Medici made him a member of the Royal Council. Richelieu also became a Cardinal of the Roman Church. Enchanted by Richelieu’s extraordinary talent, Louis XIII appointed him prime minister and advisor in 1624.
Richelieu’s Promise
When assuming the prime minister position in 1624, Cardinal Richelieu made a pledge to Louis XIII that fully explained his objectives, domestic policy, and foreign policy:
“I promise that I will use all my powers and authority (which I received through Your grace) to destroy the Huguenots, humble powerful and arrogant nobles, make all your subjects obedient and dutiful, and give your glorious monarchy its rightful prestige in foreign lands.”
Richelieu faithfully and diligently fulfilled this pledge until his death in 1642, remaining France’s true master from 1624 to 1642.
Richelieu’s Achievements
When Cardinal Richelieu assumed France’s prime ministership, France stood on the brink of civil war. Without strong administration, the monarchy’s very existence was threatened. Huguenots’ political and military rights had increased, and rebellious nobles’ dominance had questioned the Bourbon dynasty’s existence. The nation’s economic situation was unstable, and the justice system was virtually non-existent.
To address France’s critical situation, Cardinal Richelieu limited his domestic policy to two objectives:
- Make Bourbon dynasty prestige sovereign by suppressing Huguenots and noble classes
- Provide France with organized, orderly, and strong administration through centralization
In other words, Richelieu wanted to see only one royal treasury—the king’s treasury—in France. He wanted to see only one armed force—the king’s army—for France. These two objectives were sufficient for addressing France’s internal situation at that time.
Eliminating Huguenot Rights
During Henry IV’s reign, the Edict of Nantes had allowed Huguenots to organize themselves as a powerful political party, creating a “state within a state” situation that threatened the Bourbon dynasty. Though Richelieu wasn’t opposed to Huguenots’ religious freedom, he wanted to make them politically subordinate to the king.
When Huguenots rebelled against the monarchy in 1625, Richelieu besieged La Rochelle, their main stronghold. Despite English assistance, Huguenots had to surrender to Richelieu in October 1628. Showing religious tolerance, Cardinal Richelieu made the Treaty of Alès with the Huguenots. According to this treaty, Huguenots’ religious and civil rights remained intact, but their armies, fortresses, and political assembly rights were eliminated. Thus, Richelieu cleverly secured the Bourbon dynasty’s future while respecting Huguenots’ religious sentiments.
Suppressing the Nobles
To protect the Bourbon dynasty, Richelieu struck at unruly nobles’ independence and privileges. French nobles were appointed as provincial governors and had gradually built their own armies. With these forces, they ruled their provinces like monarchs and didn’t hesitate to oppose royal orders. With support from Marie de Medici and the Duke of Orléans, they began conspiring at court.
To address this dangerous situation, Richelieu issued a special decree in 1626 ordering the destruction of all noble fortresses. He banned nobles’ dueling and declared their hunting rights illegal. Violations were punishable by death. Richelieu enforced this decree so strictly that Count de Montmorency, leader of the powerful Montgomery family, was executed. Thus, Cardinal Richelieu used severity and an espionage system to suppress nobles’ insolence and local independence, making them subordinate to the state—a significant achievement.
Centralizing Administration
Richelieu knew that only through administrative centralization could organized and strong administration be established. Therefore, he first limited provincial lords’ or nobles’ rights, eliminating their military organization, judicial, and revenue collection powers. In their place, he appointed new state officials in each district called “Intendants.” These officials had to send complete reports of their areas to Richelieu and were accountable only to the central government. Eventually, their number reached 30, earning them the name “thirty tyrants.”
According to Cardinal Richelieu’s orders, Intendants controlled and managed provinces, city assemblies, villages, Parlements, and bishops. Richelieu made the States-General and Parlement powerless, vesting all authority in the monarchy. He never called a States-General session during his administration and forced Parlement to pass all decrees.
Richelieu was both a loyal servant of the Bourbon dynasty and a French patriot. As a French patriot, he wanted to diminish Spanish supremacy and prestige while giving France a prestigious position in European politics. Thus, as Louis XIII’s faithful servant, Richelieu succeeded in destroying Habsburg family prestige and establishing Bourbon dynasty prestige and glory in Europe.
Richelieu’s Foreign Policy
France’s biggest obstacle to development was Spain and Austria’s vast empire. Due to Marie de Medici’s pro-Spanish policy, France was called Spain’s “puppet” when Richelieu became prime minister. However, Cardinal Richelieu’s foreign policy objective was to establish French glory internationally, so he made every effort to destroy Spanish and Austrian Habsburg dynasty prestige.
To achieve his objectives, Cardinal Richelieu began forming and expanding French borders toward the Pyrenees, Rhine River, and Netherlands. He established marital relations with England and quickly seized Valtelline. To undermine the Habsburg dynasty, Richelieu, despite being Catholic, intervened in the Thirty Years’ War supporting Protestants, making the war’s nature entirely political.
Though Richelieu died (December 4, 1642) before the Thirty Years’ War ended, the war’s decision favored France. The war ended in 1648 with the Treaty of Westphalia. The Franco-Spanish War also ended in 1659 with the Treaty of the Pyrenees. This was the beginning of a new era for France. Thus, Richelieu adopted a bold foreign policy and established Bourbon dynasty prestige in international politics.
Evaluating Richelieu’s Achievements
Richelieu’s services as the founder of absolute monarchy in France will remain unforgettable. To establish a centralized, powerful, and organized system throughout France, he suppressed Huguenots’ and powerful nobles’ political and military rights—undoubtedly a difficult task. He ended provincial independence by appointing officials called Intendants and generally strangled democratic methods, but Richelieu can’t be blamed for this. In the contemporary environment, establishing strong monarchy was a necessity.
On the other hand, he had personally witnessed the mockery of the States-General at its 1614 session and was familiar with the struggle between Parliament and king in England. Therefore, when France stood on the brink of civil war, limiting Parlement’s rights showed his foresight.
It’s said he neglected the people’s welfare. While true that internal problems prevented him from implementing reforms domestically, he made commercial treaties with Denmark, Sweden, and Russia to increase French trade and attempted to give people a place in government. Officials called Intendants were selected from the middle class.
Most importantly, he prioritized politics over religion. Despite being Catholic, he helped northern Europe and Germany’s Protestant states to establish French glory in Europe and destroy Habsburg dynasty glory. Thus, Cardinal Richelieu was the primary architect of absolute monarchy in France. His importance is evident from the fact that his successor, Prime Minister Cardinal Mazarin, followed his policies.
Cardinal Mazarin (1642-1661): Completing the Work
Cardinal Mazarin was born in 1602 to an ordinary Italian family. He studied in Rome and Madrid. He wanted to become a high-ranking church official. According to his wishes, he was appointed the Pope’s representative in Paris, where he met Cardinal Richelieu. Richelieu was impressed and appointed him to a government position in France. In 1639, he obtained French citizenship.
After Cardinal Richelieu’s death, Louis XIII appointed Cardinal Mazarin as his prime minister and advisor, but Louis XIII also died on May 14, 1643. After Louis XIII’s death, his five-year-old son became King Louis XIV of France, with his mother appointed regent. Cardinal Mazarin remained in his position.
Mazarin’s Achievements
To maintain control over the centralized administration Richelieu had established in France required the same harsh policies, but Cardinal Mazarin lacked Richelieu’s ability and skill. Therefore, the country’s internal situation quickly deteriorated so badly that a terrible rebellion occurred in France in 1648, known in history as the “Fronde” (civil war). This war continued until 1652.
Causes of the Fronde
The word “Fronde” refers to a children’s game controlled by local police, but metaphorically it meant government opponents. The Fronde (rebellion) had several causes:
- France’s economic situation had deteriorated during the Thirty Years’ War, and Cardinal Mazarin adopted a policy of distributing money to satisfy opponents, nearly emptying the royal treasury.
- The government tried to compensate through excessive tax collection. Tax collection was contracted to moneylenders who collected maximum taxes from helpless people. This practice made moneylenders wealthy while creating widespread discontent among common people.
- Taking advantage of the country’s poor economic situation, the noble class wanted to regain power and therefore wanted to remove Mazarin from power.
- Mazarin was originally an Italian resident, and even after obtaining French citizenship, people still considered him foreign. Nobles and Parlement tried to gain popular support by calling Cardinal Mazarin “foreign.”
Paris’s Parlement had the right to accept or reject decrees passed by the king. Without Parlement’s approval, no decree could become law. Cardinal Richelieu had forced Parlement to pass all decrees. However, as soon as Richelieu died, Parlement began rejecting royal decrees and opposing the government in 1644.
Moreover, a committee of Parlement judges presented a petition to Louis XIV demanding:
- No new taxes without Paris Parlement’s approval
- No creation of new positions
- No person jailed for more than 24 hours without trial
- Proper investigation of tax contractors’ collections
- Tax reductions
- Elimination of Intendant positions
Since the royal army was in Germany at this time, Cardinal Mazarin accepted some petition demands. Intendant positions were abolished, taxes were significantly reduced, and judicial investigation of financial irregularities was promised. However, as soon as the royal army returned from Germany six months later, Mazarin attempted to use military force to eliminate the granted rights. This started a rebellion throughout the country.
Events of the Fronde (Civil War)
Mazarin’s use of military force was intolerable to rebels. Local conspiracies and rebellions began in January 1648. However, Mazarin ended the First Fronde (civil war) with the Treaty of Reuil in April 1649. According to this treaty, Mazarin confirmed the approved rights.
The Treaty of Reuil (1649) proved temporary because rebels’ main objective wasn’t confirming approved rights but removing Mazarin from office. Civil war resumed in 1650 and continued until 1652. However, this time the rebellion mainly involved the upper class and royal family nobles. Therefore, it’s called the “Fronde of the Princes.”
This war began when Cardinal Mazarin imprisoned the dangerous rebel Condé along with many nobles. News of Condé and other nobles’ imprisonment spread like wildfire through Paris and other provinces. Mazarin had to flee Paris for Brussels in February 1651 and release Condé and his associates.
Condé took control of Paris and assumed the Cardinal title, but his arrogance soon caused his allies to abandon him. Consequently, Condé had to flee to Spain for refuge in October 1652. As soon as Condé fled Paris, Louis XIV entered Paris triumphantly. Thus, the “Second Fronde” also ended.
The Fronde failed for several reasons:
- Parlement wasn’t a people’s representative institution—it was the country’s supreme court. Therefore, Parlement didn’t receive full common people’s support.
- While people supported rebels in the first Fronde rebellion, once government formed in Paris, nobles became engrossed in fulfilling their selfish interests. Seeing nobles fighting for selfish gain disappointed people, who didn’t support the upper and noble classes.
- Rebels had no defined program or real ideals.
- Due to lack of intellectual awakening, French people had become accustomed to autocratic and absolute monarchy.
The Fronde’s failure dealt a severe blow to nobles’ and upper class prestige. Monarchy’s control over Parlement’s political and economic rights increased day by day. The Second Fronde’s failure removed all obstacles to establishing absolute monarchy. Thus, Mazarin succeeded in suppressing French civil war, though he couldn’t improve France’s financial situation.
Mazarin’s Foreign Policy
Cardinal Mazarin attempted to establish French Bourbon dynasty glory in place of Spanish and Austrian Habsburg dynasty by following Richelieu’s foreign policy. He maintained France’s activism in the Thirty Years’ War after Richelieu. In 1648, he made the Treaty of Westphalia with the Habsburg Emperor, establishing French glory in Europe. Except for Strasbourg, France gained control over all of Alsace and the Rhine region. Moreover, French rights in Germany were confirmed, and France received the right to send representatives to the German Diet.
Even after the Thirty Years’ War ended, Mazarin continued war with Spain, which ended with the Treaty of the Pyrenees in 1659. This treaty gave France control over Roussillon and some southern Netherlands provinces. Philip IV agreed to marry his daughter Maria Theresa to Louis XIV. However, it was decided that in exchange for the dowry received in marriage, Maria Theresa wouldn’t claim rights to the Spanish throne. But Spain couldn’t pay the dowry amount, which prepared the background for French intervention in the later War of Spanish Succession.
Evaluating Mazarin’s Achievements
Mazarin had several character flaws. He was greedy and unstable by nature, and he greatly lacked wisdom. He failed to improve France’s financial situation, which became a cancer for future France. Nevertheless, he successfully suppressed the Fronde (civil war) and succeeded in establishing Bourbon dynasty absolutism. Through the Treaties of Westphalia and the Pyrenees, he established the Bourbon dynasty in international politics before his death (1661).
Conclusion: The Foundation of French Absolutism
The period from 1559 to 1661 transformed France from a nation torn by religious civil wars into a centralized absolute monarchy. Henry IV laid the groundwork through pragmatic religious tolerance and economic recovery. Cardinal Richelieu strengthened royal authority by crushing internal opposition. Cardinal Mazarin, despite his limitations, maintained this system through the Fronde rebellions.
By 1661, when young Louis XIV began his personal rule, France was poised to become Europe’s dominant power. The absolute monarchy these leaders built would reach its zenith under the Sun King, making France the model for European absolutism.
This century of struggle, reform, and consolidation created the framework for French power that would dominate European politics for generations. The legacy of Henry IV, Richelieu, and Mazarin was a France unified under strong royal authority—the essence of absolutism that would define an era.
