The evolution of human civilization was neither sudden nor rapid but occurred gradually and slowly, passing through several stages to reach its modern form. This long period of civilizational development is divided into three eras: the Prehistoric Period, the Protohistoric Period, and the Historic Period.
The term “prehistory” was first used by Wilson in the latter half of the 19th century CE. “Prehistoric” refers to the era that began with the emergence of human-like beings and ended just before the advent of the historic period. Humans of this time lacked knowledge of writing. In other words, prehistory is the period for which no written sources exist, and the study of such ancient societies and cultures relies solely on archaeology as the primary tool.
The Protohistoric or Pre-Historic period is one where written sources are available, but their script remains undeciphered. The Harappan Civilization and Vedic Culture fall under this category. The era supported by written sources like inscriptions and documents is known as the Historic Period.
Geological Eras: Understanding Earth’s Timeline
Earth’s geological timeline is divided into eons, each comprising multiple eras, and each era further split into epochs. The current eon, in which we live, is the Cenozoic Eon (also called the Age of New Life), which began approximately 66 million years ago. This marked the time when Earth’s continents acquired their present form. Before this eon, all continents were joined together in a supercontinent known as Pangaea.
The Cenozoic Eon is divided into two eras: the Tertiary (Paleogene) and the Quaternary (Neogene). The Tertiary Era is further subdivided into five epochs:
- Paleocene Epoch (~66–58 million years ago)
- Eocene Epoch (~58–33 million years ago)
- Oligocene Epoch (~33–23 million years ago)
- Miocene Epoch (~23–5 million years ago)
- Pliocene Epoch (~5–0.0118 million years ago)
The Gradual Evolution of Human Life
The gradual evolution of early humans or hominids began around 7 million years ago. Bipedalism developed during the Miocene Epoch, enabling the emergence of Australopithecus. The Homo branch evolved during the Pliocene Epoch, and about 2.5 million years ago, early humans began crafting tools based on their intellectual capacity, marking the start of cultural life.
Significant advancements in tool-making occurred after the Quaternary Era. This era, a subdivision of the Cenozoic, includes two epochs: the Pleistocene (Late Recent Epoch: ~2.58 million to 11,700 years ago) and the Holocene (Present Epoch: 11,700 years ago to present).
During the Pleistocene Epoch, global temperatures dropped, leading to a series of ice ages. From approximately 2.58 million to 11,700 years ago, Earth experienced four major glaciations. The last ice age ended 11,700 years ago, ushering in the Holocene Epoch. Biologically, early humans evolved during the Pleistocene, preparing them for cultural adaptations. Stone tool technology also saw changes and improvements.
The Stone Age: Foundations of Prehistoric India
The initial phase of human civilization on Earth is termed the Prehistoric Period, encompassing a significant portion of human cultural development. In 1833 CE, French archaeologist Paul Tournal coined the term “Période Quaternaire et récente,” which later evolved into “prehistory” in English and Pragaitihasik Kaal in Hindi.
Early humans faced two major challenges: securing food and protecting themselves from animals. They hunted, gathered wild fruits and roots, and used readily available riverine stone fragments for defense. In the early stages of civilization, Homo sapiens sapiens crafted tools from stone due to its easy availability. Archaeological evidence from the Prehistoric Period primarily consists of stone tools, leading to this era being called the Stone Age.
Research on Stone Age cultures in India began in 1863 CE when Robert Bruce Foote—known as the father of Indian prehistory—discovered a Paleolithic handaxe near Pallavaram, Madras (present-day Chennai). By the late 19th century, sites from Madras (Chennai), Bombay (Mumbai), Madhya Pradesh, Odisha, Bihar, Uttar Pradesh, as well as Mysore, Hyderabad, Rewa, and Talcher, revealed numerous prehistoric settlements. In 1935 CE, the Yale-Cambridge Expedition, led by D. de Terra and T.T. Paterson, surveyed the Siwalik Potwar Plateau and unearthed several Paleolithic tools.
Human use of stone tools spans a long sequence, from crude pebble tools to refined implements, reflecting evolving intelligence. This period is mainly divided into three phases, each indicating progressive developments in techniques and characteristics:
- Paleolithic Age (Old Stone Age)
- Mesolithic Age (Middle Stone Age)
- Neolithic Age (New Stone Age)
In the Paleolithic, humans used heavy, irregular flakes; the Mesolithic introduced microliths. The Neolithic economy was based on food production and animal domestication, with the first evidence of pottery.
Paleolithic Age: The Dawn of Tool-Making in India
Paleolithic culture developed during the Pleistocene Epoch. The term “Paleolithic Age” derives from Greek words paleios (old) and lithos (stone). Flake-based stone tools from this period have been found in abundance across India. Made from hard quartzite, Paleolithic humans in India are often called Quartzite Man. Based on these tools, the period is estimated from around 500,000 to 10,000 BCE.
No human fossils from Paleolithic India have been found, except for a December 1982 discovery in Hathnora, Hoshangabad district, Madhya Pradesh, in the Narmada Valley. A fossilized human skull, identified by anthropologists as belonging to the Homo erectus group (though some consider it Homo sapiens), was unearthed alongside period tools. Though undated, it represents Lower Paleolithic humans. Excavations at Bori, Maharashtra, suggest human presence in India dates back about 1.4 million years. Broadly, human existence in India began around 500,000 years ago between the Indus and Jhelum rivers in Punjab.
Pebble tools are mainly from the Soan Valley, while core-flake tools dominate Madras (Chennai). Both types appear in Singrauli Valley, Mirzapur, and Belan Valley (Prayagraj). Rock shelters and cave paintings at Bhimbetka, Madhya Pradesh, are significant. Paleolithic humans were likely of Negro race, similar to modern Andaman Islanders—short stature, curly hair, dark skin, and flat noses.
Based on tool technology and climate changes, the Paleolithic is divided into:
- Lower Paleolithic Period
- Middle Paleolithic Period
- Upper Paleolithic Period
Lower Paleolithic Period
Humans spent the most time in the Lower Paleolithic, from ~500,000 to 100,000 years ago. Raw materials included quartzite, chert, quartz, and basalt. Key tools: handaxes, choppers, cleavers, and scrapers. These are found across India, excluding the Indus, Saraswati, Brahmaputra, and Ganga plains.
Major sites: Pahalgam (Kashmir), Belan Valley (Prayagraj, Uttar Pradesh), Bhimbetka and Adamgarh (Hoshangabad, Madhya Pradesh), Nevasa (Ahmednagar, Maharashtra), Hunsagi (Gulbarga, Karnataka), and Attirampakkam (Tamil Nadu). Humans were Australopithecus-like, familiar with caves but unaware of fire.
Middle Paleolithic Period
Discovered by H.D. Sankalia, this spans ~100,000 to 40,000 years ago. Associated with Neanderthals. Tools shifted to finer stones like flint, chert, and jasper. Flake tools dominate, creating the “Flake Culture.” Tools include small-medium handaxes, cleavers, scrapers, borers, and knives.
Regional variations exist based on size, type, and raw materials. Continuity from Lower Paleolithic is evident at some sites.
Key sites: Bhimbetka, Nevasa, Pushkar, Rohri Hills (upper Indus), Samnapur (Narmada banks), across central India, Deccan, Rajasthan, Maharashtra, Tamil Nadu, Karnataka, and Odisha. It evolved into the Upper Paleolithic.
Upper Paleolithic Period
Also called Late or Microlithic in India, from ~40,000 to 10,000 BCE. Linked to Homo sapiens and modern humans. Tools from refined stones like chert, chalcedony, crystal, jasper, carnelian, and agate. Parallel-sided blades from cores are characteristic, earning it the “Blade Culture” label.
Blades were thin, narrow flakes with parallel edges (width half the length). Tools: refined points, scrapers, burins; new types like triangles, lozenges, arrowheads, crescents. Composite tools emerged. Found in Rajasthan, Ganga-Belan Valleys, central/western India, Gujarat, Andhra Pradesh, and Karnataka.
Distribution and Tool Patterns in Paleolithic India
Paleolithic cultures spanned from Kashmir Valley to Peninsular India, with environmental and technological variations. In northern India (Punjab), river terrace pebbles were used; southern humans shaped large stones into handaxes.
Kashmir Valley
In 1928 CE, archaeologist Wadnia found tools here. By 1939 CE, three-four levels from Punjab (now Pakistan) were identified: Pre-Soan, Early Soan, Late Soan, and Developed Soan, named after the Soan River. Tools: choppers, flakes, blades. Sites like Adiala, Balwal, and Chauntra yielded handaxes and choppers.
The 1935 Yale-Cambridge survey linked Soan-Indus geology to Pleistocene glaciations. The Second Ice Age formed “Boulder Conglomerate” via heavy rains. Earliest human presence is in this layer with large choppers and quartzite pebbles.
Soan tools from terraces 125m (Indus) and 65m (Soan) high. Interglacial climate changes created terraces—higher ones are older. Early Soan (Second Glaciation) has core-flake handaxes. Third Glaciation’s terrace yielded refined flakes and blades. Colonel Tooli’s 1932 find at Rawalpindi included small blades. Chauntra blends northern flakes and southern handaxe traditions.
Peninsular India
Includes southern Ganga plains, a handaxe culture hub. First found in Madras, called “Madrasian Handaxe Industry.” Robert Bruce Foote’s 1863 Pallavaram discovery. Recent research shows spread across Andhra Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh, Chennai, Mysore, Maharashtra, Gujarat, eastern Rajasthan, Uttar Pradesh plateaus, West Bengal, Indus, Kashmir, Assam, coastal Andhra, Tamil Nadu, and Kerala.
Early presence limited to river valleys. Western Punjab tools from Second Interglacial; Peninsular from Narmada laterite deposits with extinct animals (wild elephants, horses, hippos).
Tools: pebble handaxes, choppers, cleavers, beak-shaped for cutting/piercing. Acheulian handaxes (like France’s) abundant in Karnataka’s Ghatsprabha Valley (Bhatmadura site). Anagwadi and Bagalkot key sites for early/middle Paleolithic. Attirampakkam and Gudiyam (Tamil Nadu) yielded handaxes, flakes, blades, scrapers. Narmada-Godavari valleys have hunted animal remains, indicating hunter-gatherer lifestyle.
Paleolithic Culture and Lifestyle in India
Faunal remains reveal diet and lifestyle: fully dependent on hunting, nomadic, fire- and agriculture-ignorant. Known as the Hunter-Gatherer Phase. No selective hunting evidence; abundance or ease influenced prey choice. Diet varied with wet/dry seasons, based on plants and meat.
Rock art, sometimes engraved, depicts lifestyle and social life. Early Upper Paleolithic samples from Bhimbetka show hunting rituals in green/red pigments: elephants, lions, rhinos, boars. Group hunting in small bands; resource-based life. Rajasthan’s Bagor triangle stone interpreted as fertility symbol.
No family structure yet; cave dwellings like Sanghao (NW Pakistan) or Kurnool (Andhra Pradesh). Evidence from Bhimbetka and elsewhere. Settlements near forests/water. Overall, Paleolithic humans were consumers, not producers.
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