Introduction to the Paris Peace Conference
The Paris Peace Conference (1919-1920) marked a pivotal moment in world history following the end of World War I on November 11, 1918, after Germany’s surrender. This international gathering aimed to establish lasting peace, create permanent agreements between victorious and defeated nations, determine state boundaries, and foster sustainable peace initiatives.
The global political, social, economic, and cultural landscape had been severely disrupted during the First World War. While defeated nations like Austria, Hungary, Turkey, and Germany anxiously awaited their fate, the victorious Allied Powers and their associates celebrated their triumph. However, as historian E.H. Carr noted, beneath this euphoria of victory, vague notes of concern could be heard.
Selection of the Conference Venue
Initially, Geneva was chosen to host the peace conference, but the Allied nations later decided to convene in Paris, the capital of France. Several factors influenced this decision:
- France played a crucial role in World War I
- Armistice negotiations had been conducted in Paris
- Multiple Supreme War Council offices were located in Paris
- Governments-in-exile of Czechoslovakia, Poland, and Yugoslavia were based there
However, the choice of Paris proved problematic. The French public’s vengeful sentiments heavily influenced conference delegates and adversely affected their decisions throughout the peace negotiations.
Conference Representatives and Participation
The Paris Peace Conference extended invitations to 32 nations, notably excluding defeated powers (Germany, Turkey, Bulgaria, Austria) and Russia. Approximately 70 representatives from victorious nations assembled in Paris, including:
- The American President
- Prime Ministers from 11 countries
- 12 Foreign Ministers
- Various prominent politicians
While the conference lacked the emperor crowds seen at the Congress of Vienna, similar political dynamics emerged.
The “Big Four” of the Conference
Four major powers dominated the Paris Peace Conference: the United States, France, Britain, and Italy. Japan was initially included among the great powers but withdrew after Clemenceau assumed conference presidency.
Woodrow Wilson – United States President
Woodrow Wilson, President of the United States, attended the conference with his famous Fourteen Points. Among all attendees, Wilson genuinely sought to establish lasting peace. When the war concluded, the entire world looked toward Wilson as if seeking salvation.
Wilson’s primary objective involved establishing the League of Nations to resolve international disputes. He proposed his fourteen-point program and advocated for recognizing the principle of self-determination, determining boundaries according to popular will.
Wilson served as a peace envoy to war-torn nations. However, despite these qualities, he possessed character flaws. He rarely listened to others and, despite limited knowledge of European politics, disliked consulting experts. Both Lloyd George and Clemenceau understood Wilson’s weaknesses and exploited them against his idealistic principles.
Wilson’s Fourteen Points Explained
Wilson envisioned world peace based on fourteen principles:
- No secret international agreements; all treaties conducted openly and transparently
- Freedom of navigation on seas during both war and peace
- Minimum armaments sufficient only for internal security
- Respect colonial populations’ sentiments; resolve colonial claims impartially
- Withdraw troops from Russia; recognize its independence
- Liberate Belgium from German occupation; recognize its independence
- Return Alsace and Lorraine to France; grant complete freedom to all French territories
- Determine Italy’s boundaries based on nationality principles
- Provide equal trade opportunities to all states
- Establish autonomous governance in Austria and Hungary
- Withdraw troops from Romania, Serbia, Montenegro; provide Serbia access to the sea
- Turkey adopts equality policy toward all races under its rule; internationalize Dardanelles and Bosphorus straits
- Establish independent Poland; provide free access to seacoast; recognize political, economic independence and territorial integrity
- Create an organization (League of Nations) involving all nations to guarantee independence equally
Evaluation of the Fourteen Points
Wilson’s Fourteen Points hold significant importance in envisioning world peace. However, the conference failed to implement several principles. For instance, disarmament applied only to defeated nations. The mandate system for colonies received only partial implementation. Overall, Wilson’s fourteen principles remained largely political rhetoric, with some being mutually contradictory. Nevertheless, these principles helped moderate the harshness of Paris peace treaties.
David Lloyd George – British Prime Minister
British Prime Minister Lloyd George possessed keen intelligence that enabled him to easily discern others’ character weaknesses and exploit opportunities. George assumed the Prime Minister position in 1916 when Germany was achieving continuous war successes. He organized the Munitions War and War Council, leading Allied nations to victory.
After defeating Germany, Lloyd George declared: “Other people have won ordinary battles; I have won a war.” Nevertheless, Lloyd George proved more lenient toward Germany than Clemenceau, stating that one cannot simultaneously milk and consume the German cow.
Lloyd George pursued three post-war objectives:
- Complete naval destruction of Germany
- Prevent France from becoming too powerful to maintain European balance of power
- Secure maximum share of war spoils for British advancement
George largely succeeded in achieving these goals.
Georges Clemenceau – French Prime Minister
French Prime Minister Clemenceau emerged as the conference’s most influential leader due to skilled diplomacy and extensive experience. Known as the “Tiger” and “Old Lion” of the conference, Clemenceau led France to victory in World War I, earning unwavering public support.
His primary objective focused on French security at any cost. Mocking Lloyd George and Wilson, Clemenceau remarked: “Lloyd George thinks he is Napoleon, and Wilson believes he is Jesus Christ,” and “God gives ten commandments, Wilson gives fourteen.”
Clemenceau harbored deep resentment toward Germany, having witnessed France’s humiliation during the 1870 war. He sought to crush Germany so thoroughly that it would never dare attack France again. Clemenceau’s policies dominated the entire conference, effectively winning it through his influence.
Vittorio Emanuele Orlando – Italian Prime Minister
Italian Prime Minister Orlando represented Italy as a skilled orator, scholar, and diplomat. Orlando eventually left the conference due to disagreements over Fiume port claims under the secret London Treaty of 1915.
Conference Commencement and Organization
On January 18, 1919, French President Poincaré inaugurated the first conference session. Subsequently, unanimous consent appointed Clemenceau as conference president. Among the “Big Four” attendees—Wilson, Lloyd George, Clemenceau, and Orlando—only Wilson genuinely concerned himself with establishing peace, arriving determined to implement his fourteen principles.
Formation of Councils
Learning from the Congress of Vienna’s failures, organizers established a Supreme Council of ten members, including two representatives each from America, Britain, France, Italy, and Japan—hence called the “Council of Ten.” This council convened twice daily, including experts and advisors when necessary.
However, the ten-member council proved unwieldy, making confidential negotiations difficult. In March 1919, the “Council of Four” formed, comprising Wilson, Clemenceau, Lloyd George, and Orlando. These four leaders held 145 closed sessions, making all major decisions later approved by the full assembly.
After Orlando departed over unresolved Fiume demands, the “Big Four” became the “Big Three.” Conference power concentrated in these three individuals’ hands, placing world destiny under their control. These leaders held different ideals and self-interested perspectives, with Clemenceau directing proceedings according to his wishes, forcing defeated nations to accept humiliating treaties.
Major Challenges Facing the Conference
Secret Treaties Problem
The Paris Peace Conference aimed not only to establish peace but also to ensure its permanence. However, secret treaties concluded among Allied nations during World War I posed the greatest obstacle to peace establishment. These agreements involved dividing conquered territories after the war.
Treaty Framework Development
Drafting the peace treaty framework presented numerous obstacles. Pre-World War conflicts typically involved two countries, making post-war treaty drafting straightforward through bilateral agreements. However, World War I involved nearly the entire world under Western European imperialist leadership.
Some delegates insisted treaty terms should apply equally to great powers and ordinary nations. However, victorious nation representatives favored great power privileges, making treaty framework development a significant conference challenge.
Public Versus Secret Negotiations
Some representatives preferred determining treaty terms secretly, but American President Wilson and supporters opposed treaty secrecy. Wilson argued that global political circumstances had changed and secret treaty diplomacy would prove harmful to the entire world.
Despite Wilson’s sound reasoning, treaties proceeded based on secret decisions. During this period, some countries began publishing secret treaty decisions, endangering negotiation confidentiality.
Wilson’s Fourteen Points as an Obstacle
Wilson’s Fourteen Points also proved problematic for the conference. Germany had accepted armistice terms based on these principles. However, Clemenceau’s influence ensured treaty frameworks followed secret decisions. Thus, European materialism triumphed over Wilson’s idealism at the Paris Peace Conference.
State Reconstruction Problem
Before and during the war, several territories became disputed between imperialist powers through empire expansion. Additionally, some nations sought complete independence, such as Alsace-Lorraine and Poland. Both France and Germany claimed Alsace and Lorraine, while Poland remained divided among Russia, Austria, and Germany.
Determining various nations’ boundaries and reconstructing states for lasting peace establishment constituted another major conference challenge.
The Paris Peace Treaties
Defeated powers did not participate in Paris peace agreements and had to accept peace terms prepared by victorious nations. The conference produced the League of Nations alongside five separate treaties with defeated nations. Since all occurred during the Paris Peace Conference, they are collectively called “Paris Peace Treaties“:
- Treaty of Versailles with Germany – June 28, 1919
- Treaty of Saint-Germain with Austria – September 10, 1919
- Treaty of Neuilly with Bulgaria – November 27, 1919
- Treaty of Trianon with Hungary – June 4, 1920
- Treaty of Sèvres with Turkey – August 10, 1920
The conference attempted establishing peace through these treaties but failed, with all participating nations facing another world war just 20 years later.
Treaty of Versailles (June 28, 1919) – Detailed Analysis
While the Paris Peace Conference produced multiple treaty drafts, the Treaty of Versailles with Germany holds particular significance. The German delegation arrived in Versailles on April 30 under Foreign Minister Count von Brockdorff-Rantzau’s leadership. Delegates were housed in the Trianon Palace Hotel, surrounded by barbed wire.
Treaty Provisions and Structure
The Versailles treaty draft was completed on May 6, 1919, containing 15 parts, 440 articles, and 80,000 words. On May 7, 1919, Clemenceau presented a 230-page draft to German representatives at the Trianon Hotel, allowing merely two weeks for consideration.
After 25 days of intensive deliberation, German representatives submitted a detailed 443-page amendment proposal on the 26th day. Their main complaint: the proposed draft violated principles upon which they had surrendered, with disarmament applying exclusively to Germany.
German diplomats particularly requested removing Article 231, which held Germany and its allies responsible for the world war. Allied nations refused any treaty amendments, telling German representatives to sign within five days or prepare for war.
Signing Ceremony Significance
Under compulsion, German representatives signed the treaty in Versailles’ Hall of Mirrors—the same location where Bismarck had proclaimed the Prussian king as German Emperor 50 years earlier. Upon signing, German representatives stated: “We have signed the treaty… not because we consider it a satisfactory document, but because it is absolutely necessary to end the war.”
Key Provisions of the Treaty of Versailles
1. Establishment of the League of Nations
A crucial provision involved creating and organizing the League of Nations. Due to Wilson’s influence, the treaty’s first section contained League provisions. The first 26 articles described the League’s constitution, aiming to maintain international cooperation and security.
2. Military Provisions
The Treaty of Versailles made every possible effort to cripple Germany’s military power. While Wilson’s Fourteen Points advocated disarmament for all nations, implementation applied only to Germany and its allies.
Germany’s land, sea, and air forces were limited to 100,000 total personnel, with navy personnel restricted to 15,000. Germany’s compulsory military service, implemented during Bismarck’s era, was abolished.
Customs officials, forest guards, and coast guards could not exceed 1912 numbers. Police numbers would depend on population proportions. Germany could maintain six battleships, six light cruisers, twelve artillery ships, and twelve torpedo boats.
Germany could neither maintain submarines nor import-export weapons nor manufacture or store poisonous gases. Educational institutions, universities, veteran organizations, hunting and touring clubs—all organizations regardless of member ages—could have no connection with military matters.
Germany’s disarmament exceeded any disarmament recorded in modern history in severity.
3. Territorial Arrangements
The Treaty of Versailles dismantled Bismarck’s greater German Empire, built through “blood and iron policy,” through territorial changes:
- Alsace and Lorraine returned to France (seized from France after the 1870-71 Franco-Prussian War)
- Allied forces stationed in Germany’s Rhineland for 15 years for French security
- Demilitarization of Rhineland (30 miles from Rhine River’s left bank)
- Germany destroyed Heligoland harbor fortifications with assurance never to fortify again
Germany’s famous coal-producing Saar Valley was placed under League of Nations protection, with coal mine ownership given to France. After 15 years, plebiscite would determine whether Saar joined France or Germany. If Saar residents chose Germany, Germany would have to repurchase mines from France at fixed prices.
Through plebiscite, Schleswig’s northern part was given to Denmark. Eupen, Moresnet, and Malmedy were handed to Belgium. Memel port was taken from Germany and given to Lithuania.
Poland was reconstructed and given passage to the Baltic Sea through Prussia. Posen and West Prussia were recognized as Polish territory, separating East Prussia from the rest of Germany. Danzig port was separated from Germany and placed under League protection.
In the Far East, Finland gained recognition. Germany had to recognize Czechoslovakia as a state. Thus, Germany lost 25,000 square miles of territory and approximately 7 million population.
4. Economic Provisions
Article 231 of the Versailles Treaty held Germany and its allies responsible for the world war. When Germany surrendered on November 5, 1918, Allied nations informed Germany that war reparations would be collected.
France wanted full war expenses from Germany, but Wilson favored determining specific compensation amounts. Finally, a Reparations Commission was established to submit its report by May 1921. Until then, Germany would pay approximately $5 billion to Allied nations. Subsequent payment amounts would be determined later.
For reparations, Germany agreed to provide direct resources like ships, coal, dyes, chemical products, livestock, and other goods to enemies.
Allied nations knew Germany could not immediately pay such enormous reparations. Therefore, Germany had to provide coal to France and Italy for the next 10 years, and horses and other animals to France and Belgium. Germany had to return artistic objects and flags brought from various countries after 1870.
The Suez Canal was internationalized and opened to all nations’ ships.
5. Colonial Arrangements
Allied nations completely crippled Germany by seizing all its colonies through the mandate system. Germany’s African colonies were divided among Britain, France, Belgium, and South Africa. Its Far East Pacific colonies north of the equator went to Japan, while those south of the equator went to Britain, Australia, and New Zealand.
Germany’s special privileges in China, Morocco, and Egypt were terminated. Losing colonies stopped Germany from receiving oil, rubber, and raw cotton, causing numerous factories to close.
6. Judicial Provisions
According to Article 231, Kaiser Wilhelm II was charged with starting the war, with plans to try him before a court of judges from five countries. Orders were issued to prosecute soldiers who participated in the war on Germany’s behalf. However, due to the Dutch government’s friendship, Kaiser Wilhelm II’s trial never occurred.
Evaluation of the Treaty of Versailles
The Treaty of Versailles is considered world history’s most controversial and unique treaty. French Marshal General Foch stated about the Versailles Treaty that it was not a peace treaty but merely a 20-year war postponement. General Foch’s prophecy proved accurate—20 years later, the entire world burned in World War II’s flames.
Key Criticisms of the Treaty
1. Humiliating and Imposed Treaty
The Versailles Treaty is known as a humiliating and “dictated peace.” Not inviting Germany to the conference was insulting enough, but the most humiliating aspect involved housing the German delegation in a barbed-wire-surrounded hotel upon their arrival for signing, treating them like prisoners.
Additionally, Clemenceau’s rude behavior toward German representatives, public insults, and throwing rotten fruits, eggs, bricks, and stones at representatives during signing constituted not just insult to German representatives but to all of Germany.
E.H. Carr wrote that the Versailles Treaty was “imposed by victors upon the vanquished; mutual negotiations based on give-and-take processes did not determine it. While every treaty ending war involves some degree of imposed peace—since defeated states never voluntarily accept defeat’s consequences—the Versailles Treaty contained more explicit imposition than any modern-era peace treaty.”
Upon signing, one German representative stated: “Our country is surrendering under pressure, but Germany will never forget that this is an unjust treaty.”
2. Vengeful Treaty
The Versailles Treaty was essentially a retaliatory treaty. Clemenceau won elections with the slogan: “We will hang the Kaiser and collect full war reparations from Germany.” Allied nations’ vengeful sentiments prevented proper implementation of Wilson’s principles.
Allied nations, filled with hatred and revenge, wanted not just flesh but to squeeze every last drop of blood from Germany’s half-dead body.
3. Harsh Terms
Versailles Treaty terms were excessively harsh. The treaty’s main purpose becomes clear from Lloyd George’s statement that its articles were written with martyrs’ blood. Those who started this war must be taught never to do so again.
The Treaty of Versailles not only militarily crippled Germany but dismembered it, seized its colonies, and placed its economic resources under other nations’ ownership. Indeed, terms were so severe that no self-respecting nation could tolerate them. Churchill correctly stated: “Its economic terms were so disgraceful and foolish that they rendered it clearly meaningless.”
4. One-Sided Decisions
Versailles Treaty decisions were entirely one-sided. Germany was invited only to sign the treaty. Disarmament principles applied only to Germany, not other nations. The self-determination principle was also not applied to Germany.
5. Territorial Arrangement Flaws
Versailles Treaty provisions transformed all of Europe into Balkan-like principalities. Just as fragmenting the Turkish Empire created principalities, Germany’s states were broken into small principalities that later became puppet states of great powers.
Treaty of Saint-Germain (September 10, 1919)
At Saint-Germain near Paris, Allied nations and their associates concluded the Treaty of Saint-Germain with Austria on September 10, 1919. According to this treaty:
- The Austria-Hungary Empire was dissolved
- Austria recognized independence of Poland, Hungary, Yugoslavia, and Czechoslovakia
- Czechoslovakia was formed by combining Moravia, Bohemia, and Silesia
- Yugoslavia was formed by combining regions like Bosnia and Herzegovina
- Poland received Galicia; Romania received Bukovina
- Various ethnic groups (Germans, Poles, Romanians, Italians, Croats, Czechs) received territories according to self-determination principles
- Italy received Istria, South Tyrol, Trento, and Dalmatia
- Habsburg rule ended; Austria became merely a small republic
Military Provisions
Austria’s army was fixed at 30,000 personnel. Its air force and navy were eliminated, with permission to maintain only three boats on the Danube River. Regarding war reparations, a Reparations Commission would be formed, and Austria would have to accept whatever amount it determined.
The industrial region of Teschen was divided between Poland and Czechoslovakia, with provisions for Austria to hand over war criminals to Allied nations.
Thus, Austria was cut and reduced, with small states established on its remnants, ignoring cultural principles in their creation. According to E.H. Carr, two provisions clearly violated the self-determination principle: prohibition of Austria-Germany union and handing purely German-speaking South Tyrol to Italy.
Treaty of Neuilly (November 27, 1919)
This treaty occurred between Bulgaria and Allied nations:
- Greece received Thrace’s coastline
- Some Western Bulgarian territories were given to Yugoslavia
- Bulgaria’s navy was eliminated; army limited to 20,000 personnel
- War reparations of 350 million dollars payable in seven installments
Treaty of Trianon (June 4, 1920)
This treaty was signed between Hungary and Allied powers:
- Transylvania given to Romania
- Croatia given to Serbia
- Slovakia merged with Czechoslovakia
- Hungary separated from Austria
- Hungarian army limited to 35,000 personnel
- Hungary required to pay war reparations like Austria
Treaty of Sèvres (August 10, 1920)
The Treaty of Sèvres occurred between Turkey’s fugitive government and Allied powers:
- Kurdistan promised independence
- Armenia made independent
- Thrace, Adriatic, some islands, and Gallipoli islands given to Greece
- Turkey relinquished rights over Egypt, Morocco, Tripoli, Syria, Palestine, Arabia, and Mesopotamia
- Bosphorus and Dardanelles were internationalized
- Turkish Sultan retained only Anatolian mountainous region and area around Constantinople
Thus, Turkey became merely a shadow of its former self, with existence preserved around the Asian city of Angora.
Revision Through Treaty of Lausanne (1923)
Mustafa Kemal Pasha rejected the Sèvres Treaty. He defeated Greece in war, forcing Allied nations to reconsider. Finally, Allied nations concluded the Treaty of Lausanne with Turkey on July 24, 1923. The Lausanne Treaty can truly be called a peace treaty in real terms.
Conclusion: Legacy and Impact
The Paris Peace Conference treaties, particularly the Treaty of Versailles, represented the harshest and most imposed settlements, which German representatives signed under compulsion. Germany never forgot this national humiliation, and when opportunity arose under Hitler’s leadership, it sought to throw off the Versailles Treaty’s yoke through aggressive policies, ultimately resulting in World War II.
The conference demonstrated that vengeful peace treaties sow seeds for future conflicts. The failure to establish lasting peace within 20 years validated critics who argued these settlements were temporary ceasefires rather than genuine peace agreements.
