The Khilji Dynasty was the second ruling family of the Delhi Sultanate. This dynasty was founded by Jalaluddin Khilji, who began his life as a soldier. Although the Khilji tribe had been settled in Afghanistan for a long time, like their predecessor Slave Sultans, this dynasty was originally from Turkistan.
Who Were the Khiljis?
There is considerable debate on the question of who the Khiljis were. Historian Nizamuddin Ahmad describes Jalaluddin Khilji as the son-in-law of Genghis Khan and a descendant of the noble Khan. However, contemporary historian Ziauddin Barani believes that Jalaluddin belonged to a race different from the Turks. He also states that after the death of Kaikubad, the Turks lost the empire. But the Khiljis cannot be placed in the Afghan or Pathan category. Fakhruddin described the Khiljis as one of the 64 tribes of the Turks, and most scholars support Fakhruddin’s view, suggesting that the Khiljis were of Turkish origin. Since this tribe lived in the areas along the Helmand River in Afghanistan, known as ‘Khilji’, before coming to India, they were likely called ‘Khilji’ for this reason. Due to their long stay in Afghanistan, they adopted Afghan qualities. Therefore, the Khiljis were a privileged-deprived class and became victims of the racist policies of the Ilbari dynasty.
Khilji Revolution
By assassinating Shamsuddin Qaimurs, the last Sultan of the Slave Dynasty, Jalaluddin Khilji ended the monopoly of the Ilbari dynasty and ascended the throne of Delhi. Therefore, in history, the establishment of the Khilji Dynasty is also known as the ‘Khilji Revolution’.
The Khiljis were mainly from the proletarian class, and they ended the notion that the right to rule belonged only to a specific class. After this revolution, the influence of Turkish noble lords decreased. The Khilji Revolution is important not only because it ended the Slave Dynasty and established the new Khilji Dynasty, but also because as a result of the Khilji Revolution, the Delhi Sultanate expanded to the far south.
The Khilji era was an age of imperialism and the expansion of Muslim power. The Khilji Revolution rejected the importance of religion and ulema in administration and proved that the state could not only be kept alive without the help of religion but also successfully operated. Thus, the power of Khilji rulers mainly depended on strength.
Jalaluddin Firoz Khilji (1290-1296 AD)
Jalaluddin Firoz Khilji started his life as a soldier. On the strength of his ability, he obtained the post of ‘Sar-e-Jahandar Shahi’ (bodyguard) and later became the Subedar of Samana. Kaikubad gave him the titles of ‘Ariz-e-Mumalik’ and ‘Shaista Khan’.
Jalaluddin had his coronation in the palace of Kilokhari instead of Delhi and entered Delhi a year later. The nobles and citizens of Delhi initially did not welcome the new Khilji ruler Jalaluddin Firoz because they considered him of Afghan descent. This is why Jalaluddin made Kilokhari his capital. But, as Barani writes, gradually people’s resentment was removed due to the superiority of his character, his justice, generosity, and affection, and the loyalty of his nobles increased, albeit reluctantly, in the hope of gaining land.
Achievements of Jalaluddin Khilji
Jalaluddin Firoz Khilji was the first Sultan of Delhi whose internal policy was based on the principle of pleasing others. Even after becoming Sultan, he did not remove Balban’s relatives from their posts. One of Balban’s relatives, Malik Chhajju, remained the governor of Awadh and Manikpur. Similarly, Fakhruddin remained the Kotwal of Delhi. He gave his sons the titles of Khan Khana, Arkali Khan, and Qadr Khan. Jalaluddin’s policy towards the Hindu population was relatively liberal. The only exception to his liberal policy was when he executed a dervish named Siddi Maula.
The new Sultan showed extreme unjust leniency towards rebels and other criminals. As a natural result of his peaceful tendencies and leniency, conspiracies among nobles restarted, and the authority of the Delhi throne began to be disrespected. Amir Khusro in his work ‘Miftah-ul-Futuh’ in 1291 AD described Jalaluddin Khilji’s military campaigns, the rebellion of Malik Chhajju and its suppression, the Sultan’s attack on Ranthambore, and victories in other places. Some important achievements of Jalaluddin’s short reign are as follows-
Suppression of Malik Chhajju’s Rebellion
In August 1290 AD, Malik Chhajju, a nephew of Balban and feudatory of Kara-Manikpur, rebelled against him with the help of many nobles. He assumed the title of ‘Sultan Mugisuddin’, minted coins in his name, and had the khutba read. The Sultan successfully suppressed the rebellion and handed over the subedari of Kara-Manikpur to his nephew and son-in-law Alauddin Khilji. He suppressed thugs in areas near Delhi.
Campaign Against Ranthambore
In 1291 AD, Jalaluddin’s campaign against Ranthambore failed. The Sultan withdrew without capturing the fort because he did not want to sacrifice many Muslims. But in 1292 AD, he succeeded in conquering the forts of Mandaur and Jhain.
Relations with Mongols
Jalaluddin achieved decisive success against a Mongol group. In 1292 AD, Abdullah, grandson of Mongol invader Halaku (Hulagu), attacked Punjab with about 1.5 lakh Mongols and reached Sunam. The Sultan’s army badly defeated the invaders, and then reconciliation occurred between the two sides. The Mongols were ready to return from India, but Ulugh, a descendant (grandson) of Genghis, along with about 4,000 Mongol supporters, accepted Islam and decided to stay in India. Later, Jalaluddin married his daughter to Ulugh and settled a colony near Delhi called Mughalpur for them. Later, they were known as ‘New Muslims’. This was an unjust concession that caused much trouble later. They proved to be troublesome neighbors for the Delhi government and became a cause of crisis.
First Invasion of South India
During Jalaluddin’s time, his nephew Alauddin, with his uncle’s permission, campaigned against Malwa, Bhilsa, and Devagiri in 1292 AD. The attack on Devagiri was the first Muslim invasion of South India. Alauddin obtained immense wealth in these campaigns.
Although Jalaluddin Khilji’s rule was based on the policy of liberal despotism, he had the Iranian religious fakir Sidi Maula crushed under elephant feet. This was the Sultan’s only harsh act; otherwise, his policy was one of liberality and satisfying everyone. About his liberal policy, Jalaluddin said: ‘I am an old Muslim, and shedding Muslim blood is not my habit.’ Both Amir Khusro and Imami called Alauddin Khilji a ‘fortunate person’. It was a strange play of the Sultan’s fate that his ambitious nephew killed him in 1296 AD.
Alauddin Khilji (1296-1316 AD)
Alauddin Khilji was the nephew and son-in-law of Jalaluddin Khilji. Alauddin Khilji’s father’s name was Shihabuddin Masud. His childhood name was Ali Gurshasp. Orphaned Alauddin was raised by his uncle Jalaluddin Firoz. Firoz loved his nephew Alauddin so much that he made him his son-in-law. For playing an important role in suppressing Malik Chhajju’s rebellion, Jalaluddin gave him the jagir of Kara-Manikpur in Allahabad district and the post of ‘Amir-e-Tuzuk’. This is where the seeds of ambition were sown in Alauddin’s mind. It is possible that family troubles arising from the conspiracies of his mother-in-law Malika Jahan and his wife also inspired him to establish separate power and influence away from the Delhi court.
Looting of South India
In Bhilsa, Alauddin heard vague rumors of the immense wealth of the Devagiri kingdom. At that time, the Yadav dynasty’s Ramchandradev was ruling the Devagiri state spread in the western Deccan. Alauddin reached Devagiri via central India and Vindhya region with several thousand horsemen. He kept this intention secret from his uncle. Ramchandradev was not prepared for such an attack. His son Shankaradev had gone south with most of the army. After a futile resistance, Ramchandradev was defeated. Forced, he had to make a treaty with the invader, promising a very large amount of money. But as Alauddin was about to return to Kara, Shankaradev returned to Devagiri and, despite his father’s prohibition, clashed with the invaders. But Shankaradev was soon defeated, and his army fled. Now a treaty was made on even harsher terms than before. Alauddin returned to Kara with a large amount of loot in the form of gold, silver, silk, pearls, and precious stones. This daring attack by the Khilji invader not only caused huge economic loss to the Deccan but also opened the way for conquest beyond the Vindhya mountains. The victory and wealth obtained in the south increased Alauddin’s ambition, and the Delhi throne became his goal.
Murder of Jalaluddin Firoz Khilji
Old Sultan Jalaluddin Firoz was honestly advised by officials like Ahmad Chap to keep control over his nephew. Firoz, blinded by love for his nephew and son-in-law Alauddin, fell into the trap set by him. On the advice of a traitor in his court, he set out by boat to meet his beloved nephew without necessary self-defense arrangements. Upon reaching Kara, as soon as Jalaluddin disembarked from the boat and embraced his nephew Alauddin, his brother Almas Beg secretly stabbed the Sultan to death, whom Alauddin later honored with the title ‘Ulugh Khan’.
Coronation of Alauddin Khilji
After murdering his uncle Jalaluddin, Alauddin’s supporters declared him Sultan on 19 July 1296 AD in his camp itself. Ziauddin Barani’s statement on his coronation is that ‘Blood was still dripping from the severed head of the martyred Sultan (Jalaluddin Firoz Khilji) when the royal canopy was placed over Alauddin Khilji’s head, and he was declared Sultan.’
After this, Alauddin tried to strengthen his position in Delhi. Meanwhile, in Delhi, the Sultan’s widow Begum Malika Jahan enthroned her younger son as Ruknuddin Ibrahim. Her elder son Arkali Khan had gone to Multan due to dissatisfaction with some of her actions. Alauddin quickly marched towards Delhi even in terrible rain. After some weak resistance, Ibrahim fled to Multan with his mother and trusted Ahmad Chap. Alauddin distributed the wealth obtained from the Deccan to nobles, officials, and Delhi residents to win them over and had his second coronation on 3 October 1296 AD in Balban’s Red Palace.
Alauddin’s brother Ulugh Khan and his minister Zafar Khan captured the fugitive relatives and friends of the deceased Sultan from Multan. Arkali Khan, Ibrahim, his brother-in-law Ulugh Khan Mongol, and Ahmad Chap were blinded. All sons of Arkali were killed, and he and his brother were imprisoned in the fort of Hansi. Malika Jahan and Ahmad Chap were kept under strict control in Delhi itself.
Achievements of Alauddin Khilji
Alauddin’s position was still uncertain. He had to face many adverse forces such as enmity of the Turks, rebellious behavior of rulers of Rajasthan, Malwa, and Gujarat, conspiracies of nobles, and Mongol invasions, but the new Sultan not only faced the problems but also expanded the Sultanate. Thus, with Alauddin Khilji, the 50-year history of imperial expansion begins.
Resistance to Mongol Invasions
Alauddin had to face the most and most terrible Mongol invasions during his reign. Within a few months of ascending the throne, in 1297-98 AD, a huge Mongol group under Qadar’s leadership invaded India, but the Sultan’s army under Zafar Khan and Ulugh Khan defeated them near Jalandhar and drove them back.
The second Mongol invasion under Saldi occurred in 1298 AD on Siwan. Zafar Khan successfully foiled this invasion. This time Zafar Khan defeated them and sent their leader captive to Delhi with about two thousand followers.
In 1299 AD, Qutlugh Khwaja entered India with several thousand Mongols. This time their goal was conquest, not looting. Therefore, they neither looted the provinces on their way nor attacked forts. They reached near Delhi with the intention of besieging the city, causing panic there. Perhaps fearing Zafar Khan’s valor, the Mongols quickly returned, but Zafar Khan was killed while fighting.
In 1304 AD, the Mongols invaded India again. Even after besieging the fort of Siri for about two months, they were not successful. They looted areas near Delhi and left. In 1305 AD, Mongols under Alibeg, Tartak, and Targi reached Amroha. But Malik Kafur and Ghazi Malik badly defeated the Mongols.
The last Mongol invasion during Alauddin’s reign occurred in 1307-1308 AD when Mongols under Iqbalmand crossed the Indus. Ghazi Malik (Ghiyasuddin Tughlaq) defeated the Mongols on the banks of the Ravi River. Discouraged by repeated failures and frightened by the Delhi Sultan’s harsh actions, the Mongols did not appear again during his reign, giving the northwest frontier and Delhi people a sigh of relief.
Measures for Security of Northwest Frontier
Like Balban, Alauddin took some defensive measures for the security of his state’s northwest frontier. He repaired old forts on the Mongol route and constructed new ones. He strengthened the royal army and kept armies in remote outposts of Samana and Dipalpur for excellent security, which were always ready for war. For protection from Mongol invasions, Alauddin made Siri his capital in 1304 AD and fortified it. In 1305 AD, Ghazi Malik Tughlaq (later Ghiyasuddin Tughlaq) was appointed as frontier guardian, who effectively kept the Mongols at bay.
Suppression of New Muslims
The New Muslims (new converts) settled near Delhi were dissatisfied with Alauddin’s policies because their ambitions for positions or other benefits in their settlement area were not fulfilled. When Alauddin’s army was returning from the conquest of Gujarat, these New Muslims rebelled. The Sultan also dismissed all New Muslims from their jobs. This increased their discontent further. In despair, they planned the Sultan’s assassination, but the plan was soon discovered, and the Sultan ordered their complete annihilation, taking terrible revenge. Thus, in one day, about twenty to thirty thousand New Muslims were mercilessly slaughtered.
Expansion of the Sultanate
In the early years of his reign, Alauddin continued to achieve success, which turned his head. He started making extremely impossible plans and harboring completely baseless desires. He planned to establish a new religion and become a world conqueror like Alexander the Great. For these plans, he consulted Qazi Alaulmulk (uncle of historian Ziauddin Barani). Alaulmulk was formerly his representative in Kara and was then the Kotwal of Delhi. He immediately made him understand the futility of his plans. Regarding the first plan, Qazi Alaulmulk said that as long as the world exists, the position of prophet has never been associated with kings and never will be, although some prophets have also ruled. Regarding the second plan, he said that even a large part of Hindustan is unconquered, there is fear of Mongol attacks on the state, and there is no vizier like Aristotle to run the state in the Sultan’s absence. Thus, the Sultan was brought to senses and abandoned his madness-filled plans. Still, Alauddin assumed the title ‘Sikandar II’ (Sani) and had it mentioned on his coins.
Alauddin Khilji’s Conquests in North India
Alauddin Khilji was a Sultan of imperialistic tendencies. During his period, the rapid expansion of Muslim power began in various parts of India, which continued for almost half a century. On one hand, he conquered North Indian states and established direct rule over them; on the other hand, he subjugated South Indian states, collected annual tribute from them, and expanded his sphere of influence.
Conquest of Gujarat
In 1297 AD, Alauddin sent an army under his brother Ulugh Khan and vizier Nusrat Khan to conquer Gujarat. Gujarat had been looted many times but remained unconquered. Gujarat’s Rajput Baghel ruler Karnadev II (Rajkaran) was defeated near Ahmedabad and fled with his daughter Devaldevi to take refuge with Devagiri’s king Ramchandradev. The Sultan’s army ravaged the entire state and captured Karnadev’s beautiful queen Kamaladevi. The invaders attacked Surat, Somnath, and Cambay and looted Gujarat’s rich ports. Here, Nusrat Khan bought a Hindu eunuch Malik Kafur for one thousand dinars. With immense looted wealth, Kamaladevi, and eunuch Kafur, the army returned to Delhi. Alauddin Khilji later married Kamaladevi and made her his most favorite queen (Mallika Jahan).
Conquest of Ranthambore
The fort of Ranthambore, which had been conquered by Qutbuddin Aibak and Iltutmish, was seized by Rajputs. Its ruler Hammirdev was famous for his ability and courage. He had given shelter to some dissatisfied New Muslims like Muhammad Shah and Kehb, which angered Alauddin. In 1299 AD, the Sultan sent an army under his brother Ulugh Khan and Nusrat Khan to conquer the fort. They conquered Jhain and camped in front of Ranthambore. But the Rajputs soon defeated them, and Nusrat Khan was killed by a stone from the fort’s manjaniq while supervising the construction of a pasheb and a gargaj. Hearing the news of this defeat of his army, Alauddin himself marched towards Ranthambore. While hunting with some attendants at Tilpat on the way to the fort, his nephew Akat Khan, with some new Muslims, attacked and wounded him. But the traitor was soon caught and killed along with his supporters.
Alauddin could conquer Ranthambore with great difficulty in July 1301 AD after besieging the fort for a year. Hammir Dev and the new Muslims whom he had sheltered were killed. The Sultan also had Ranmal and his companions executed, who had betrayed Hammirdev and joined him. ‘Tarikh-e-Alai’ and ‘Hammir Mahakavya’ describe Hammirdev and his family members attaining death by jauhar.
Conquest of Jaisalmer
Due to the theft of some army horses, Sultan Khilji defeated Jaisalmer’s ruler Duda and his ally Tilaksingh in 1299 AD and conquered Jaisalmer.
Conquest of Mewar
Alauddin also planned to attack Mewar, the land of the brave Guhila Rajputs. At that time, Mewar’s king was Rana Ratansingh, whose capital was Chittor. The fort of Chittor was very secure from a strategic point of view, so it caught Alauddin’s eye. Some historians have described the reason for Alauddin’s attack on Chittor as his fascination with Rana Ratansingh’s extremely beautiful queen Padmini, but there is no clear mention of this fact in any contemporary history or inscription.
The attack on Mewar was probably the result of the Sultan’s ambitious desire for state expansion, similar to the campaign against Ranthambore. Rana was captured and taken to the Sultan’s camp, but the Rajputs bravely rescued him. A small group of Rajputs under their two brave heroes Gora and Badal kept the invaders at bay at the outer gate of Chittorgarh, but they could not stand long against Delhi’s powerful army.
Finally, on 28 January 1303 AD, the Sultan succeeded in capturing the fort of Chittor. Rana Ratansingh attained martyrdom, and his wife Queen Padmini performed jauhar with other women. Alauddin appointed his son Khizr Khan as the ruler here and changed the name of Chittor to Khizrabad.
Even after this, Rajputs continued efforts to liberate Chittor. Meanwhile, Alauddin recalled Khizr Khan to Delhi and entrusted the responsibility of Chittor fort to Rajput sardar Maldev. After Alauddin’s death, Hammirdev of the Guhilota dynasty attacked Maldev and liberated Chittor along with the entire Mewar in 1321 AD. Thus, after Alauddin’s death, Chittor once again became fully independent.
Conquest of Malwa
After the conquest of Chittor, in 1305 AD, Alauddin sent an army under Ain-ul-Mulk, Subedar of Multan, to capture Malwa. Malwa’s king Mahlak Dev and his commander Harnand (Koka Pradhan) bravely faced him with a large army. But in November 1305 AD, they were defeated and killed. The Sultan’s special chamberlain Ainulmulk was appointed ruler of Malwa. After this, the Sultan’s army conquered Ujjain, Mandu, Dhar, and Chanderi.
Jalore
Jalore’s ruler Kanhaddev had accepted Alauddin’s suzerainty in 1304 AD, but gradually he made himself independent again. In 1305 AD, the Sultan’s army under Kamaluddin Gurg defeated Kanhaddev in battle and killed him. Thus, with the capture of Jalore, Alauddin’s difficult task of conquering Rajasthan was completed.
Capture of Siwana
In 1308 AD, Alauddin attacked to capture Siwana. There, Parmar Rajput ruler Sheetaldev fought fiercely but was eventually killed. Kamaluddin Gurg was appointed ruler there. Thus, by the end of 130 5 AD, almost all of northern India came under the Khilji empire.
With the conquests of North India, Alauddin’s morale increased, and he began comparing himself to Prophet Muhammad. He said that just as the Prophet has four warriors, similarly I have four warriors: Ulugh Khan, Nusrat Khan, Zafar Khan, and Alp Khan. He was also influenced by Alexander and wanted to conquer the world, so he had the title Sikandar-e-Sani engraved on his coins. Now he started thinking about the conquest of South India (Deccan).
Alauddin Khilji’s Conquests in South India
Although due to trade, India’s western coast had come into contact with Muslims earlier, the first conquest of the Deccan by Muslims was done by the Khiljis under Alauddin’s leadership. In fact, Alauddin attacked the south for political and economic reasons. For an ambitious ruler like him, it was natural to try to establish his influence over the south after gaining control over the north. The wealth of the Deccan was also a temptation for a brave warrior.
The political situation of India beyond the Vindhya mountains at that time provided Alauddin an opportunity for military campaigns. At that time, South India was divided into four major kingdoms. The Yadav state of Devagiri was under a capable ruler like Ramchandradev (1271-1309 AD).
In the east, the region called Telangana was under Pratap Rudradev I of the Kakatiya dynasty. Its capital was Warangal (Andhra Pradesh). The area of modern Mysore (Karnataka) was under the Hoysalas. At that time, their king was Veer Ballal III (1292-1342 AD). Their capital was Dwarsamudra (Halebid), famous for beautiful temples. In the far south was the Pandya kingdom, which Muslim writers call ‘Ma’bar’, including modern Madura, Ramnad, and Tinnevelly districts. At that time, Marvarman Kulasekhar (1268-1311 AD) was ruling this region.
There were also many small kings, such as Telugu Chola king Mamsiddhi III ruling in Nellore district, Gang king Bhanudev ruling in Orissa, Kerala king Ravivarman ruling from Kollam (Quilon), and Alup king Bankidev Alupendra ruling in Mangalore.
There was no mutual unity among all these kingdoms of the south. When Alauddin attacked Devagiri in 1294 AD, none of them helped Ramchandradev. Not only that, sometimes the Hoysala king even attacked Devagiri’s Ramchandradev. This internal discord among southern kingdoms invited invaders from the north.
Malik Kafur’s Campaigns in South India
Yadavs of Devagiri
In March 1307 AD, Alauddin sent an army under Kafur, who was now called Malik Nayab (commander-in-chief) of the state, against Ramchandradev of Devagiri because he had stopped paying tribute to Elichpur province for the last three years. Besides, he had also given shelter to Gujarat’s fugitive ruler Rai Karnadev II. Kafur advanced towards Devagiri via Malwa.
He devastated the entire country, looted a lot of wealth, and forced Ramchandradev to make a treaty. Rai Karn’s daughter Devaldevi was captured and taken to Gujarat’s ruler Alp Khan in Delhi, where she was married to the Sultan’s eldest son Khizr Khan.
Kafur returned to Delhi with immense wealth, loads of elephants, and King Ramchandradev. The Sultan treated him kindly and gave him the title ‘Ray-e-Rayan’. Six months later, the Sultan sent him back to his state with the jagir of Navsari in Gujarat and one lakh gold tankas. After that, Ramchandradev ruled as a feudatory of the Delhi Sultanate and regularly sent revenue to Delhi. When Malik Kafur was going to conquer Dwarsamudra, Ramchandradev fully assisted him.
Kakatiyas of Telangana
In 1303 AD, Alauddin had attacked Kakatiya king Prataprudradev, which failed, but after crushing the Yadavs, he made a second attempt in 1307 AD to subjugate the Kakatiya king. The Sultan did not want to annex the Warangal state to his empire because governing it from a great distance would be difficult. His main objective was to obtain the immense wealth of this state and make Prataprudradev accept his suzerainty. Alauddin had ordered Kafur that ‘If the Rai agrees to surrender his treasury, jewels, elephants, and horses and send treasury and elephants next year, Malik Nayab Kafur should accept these conditions and not press the Rai further.’
Kafur entered Telangana via the diamond mines district of Asirgarh (Meragadh). Devagiri’s ruler Ramchandradev fully assisted Kafur. When Kafur’s army was advancing towards Telangana, he also gave him a capable supply department. In 1310 AD, Kafur reached Telangana’s capital Warangal with his army. Prataprudradev shut himself in Warangal’s strong fort and tried to resist the invaders.
Finally, in March 1310 AD, the Kakatiya king had a golden statue of himself made, put a golden chain around his neck, and sent it to Kafur as a symbol of surrender. He gave Kafur one hundred elephants, seven thousand horses, and a lot of jewels and minted coins and also agreed to send tribute to Delhi annually. On this occasion, Prataprudradev gave Malik Kafur the world-famous Kohinoor diamond. Kafur returned to Delhi groaning under the burden of treasury, with a lot of loot on one thousand camels.
Hoysalas of Dwarsamudra
Encouraged by his successes, Alauddin decided to conquer the far southern kingdoms. These kingdoms were famous for the immense wealth of their temples. On 18 November 1310 AD, a huge army from Delhi under Malik Kafur and Khwaja Haji marched against the Hoysala kingdom and reached the Hoysalas’ capital Dwarsamudra via Devagiri. In 1311 AD, after a ordinary battle, Hoysala king Veer Ballal III laid down arms and accepted Alauddin’s suzerainty. Malik Nayab sent immense wealth and a Hoysala prince to Delhi. Sultan Alauddin gave Ballal Dev a ‘khilat’, a crown, umbrella, and a bag of ten lakh tankas. Now the Hoysalas became feudatories of the Delhi Sultan and also assisted Kafur in the Ma’bar campaign.
Pandyas of Malabar
After staying twelve days in Dwarsamudra, Malik Nayab turned his attention to Ma’bar country. Pandya was also known as Ma’bar (Malabar). It extended over almost the entire Coromandel (Cholamandal) coast from Quilon to Cape Comorin. At that time, this province was under Pandya rule. Due to the power struggle between Pandya king Kulasekhar’s legitimate son Sundar Pandya and his illegitimate but favorite son Veer Pandya, Malik Nayab got the opportunity to attack Madura. Angered by his father’s partiality in appointing Veer Pandya as successor, Sundar Pandya killed the king at the end of May 1310 and seized the crown. But in November of the same year, he was defeated in battle by his brother. Sundar Pandya sought help from Muslims.
Malik Kafur reached the Pandyas’ capital Madura with a huge army on 14 April 1311 AD and attacked the Pandyas’ important center ‘Veerdhul’. Veer Pandya was not found, yet the city was badly looted, in which, according to Amir Khusro, five hundred twelve elephants, five thousand horses, and five hundred maunds of diamonds, pearls, emeralds, rubies, and various jewels were obtained. According to Amir Khusro, Kafur reached Rameswaram.
Economically, this was probably Kafur’s most successful campaign. On 18 October 1311 AD, Kafur returned to Delhi with immense wealth, including six hundred twelve elephants, twenty thousand horses, ninety-six thousand maunds of gold, jewels, and some chests of pearls. Thus, Malabar country fell into the hands of imperialists, which remained under the Delhi Sultanate until the beginning of Muhammad Tughlaq’s reign.
In 1312 AD, Ramchandradev’s son Shankaradev stopped paying tribute to the Delhi Sultan and tried to become independent again. On this, Malik Nayab Kafur went from Delhi again and defeated and killed Shankaradev. As a result, the entire South India had to accept the suzerainty of the Delhi Sultan.
Thus, Alauddin completed the unprecedented expansion of the Delhi Sultanate. In Khazain-ul-Futuh, Khilji is called the Sultan of the world, conqueror of the age, and shepherd of the people. An inscription from Jodhpur says that due to Alauddin Khilji’s god-like valor, the earth was freed from atrocities.
Rebellions During Alauddin Khilji’s Reign
Some rebellions also occurred during Alauddin Khilji’s reign. In 1299 AD, the rebellion by ‘New Muslims’ was suppressed by Nusrat Khan. Alauddin’s nephew Akat Khan, with the help of some new Muslims, made a deadly attack on him, in return for which he was caught and killed. Alauddin’s nephews Umar Khan and Manju Khan, who were governors of Awadh and Badaun respectively, rebelled and were defeated and killed. The conspiracy of Haji Maula in Delhi was suppressed by Hamiduddin. Thus, all conspiracies to dethrone Alauddin were successfully quelled.
Alauddin Khilji’s Theory of Kingship
Alauddin’s views on kingship and sovereignty were different from those of his predecessors. He was the first Sultan of Delhi who clearly declared that kingship does not recognize blood relations. Although Alauddin accepted the Caliph’s authority and assumed the title ‘Yamin-ul-Khilafat-Nasiri-Amir-ul-Mominin’, he did not consider it necessary to obtain approval for his position from the Caliph.
He also did not allow the ulema class to interfere in his administrative work. In his rule, he gave priority to state interest over Islamic principles. He declared that for the political interests of my government, I will act even without consulting the ulema. To Qazi Mugisuddin of Biana, who supported the dominance of the religious class, he said, ‘I do not know whether this is lawful or unlawful. Whatever I consider beneficial for the state or appropriate in emergency, I order it.’
But it would be unfair to assume from Alauddin’s viewpoint that he neglected Islam. Outside India, he was famous as a great defender of Islam. There was difference of opinion on this subject in India. Barani and his disciples give more importance to his neglect of religion, while Amir Khusro, who was a cultured and perceptive person, described him as a supporter of Islam. Alauddin himself told the Qazi, ‘Although I have not studied knowledge (ilm) or books (Quran Sharif), I am a Muslim from a Muslim lineage.’ The inscriptions on Alauddin’s monuments also clearly indicate that his faith in Islam was not destroyed.
Rebellion-Preventive Ordinances
Alauddin was a determined Sultan who followed the policy of completeness in every work to establish a powerful government at the center. After studying the causes of conspiracies occurring in various parts of the Sultanate, he created a code of preventive rules (ordinances) to eliminate those causes-
First, he struck at the institution of personal property. All land given to amirs as gifts, presents, and pensions was confiscated, heavy taxes were imposed on it, and all villages that were milkayat, inam, and waqf were confiscated. Barani writes that people were pressured and punished, money was squeezed from them by all kinds of excuses. Many people were left with absolutely no money. Finally, the situation reached such a point that except for maliks and amirs, officials, Multanis, and mahajans (bankers), no one had even a very small amount.
Second, the Sultan organized the intelligence department and appointed employees like barid (intelligence officer) and munhian (informer) who informed the Sultan of every incident, even the most ordinary things like gossip and transactions in markets. The intelligence system was so strong that nobles did not dare to speak loudly anywhere, and if they had to say something, they expressed their feelings through signs.
Third, complete prohibition was imposed on intoxicating liquor, drugs, and gambling. The Sultan himself gave up drinking and set an example. All liquor vessels were shattered.
Fourth, the Sultan imposed restrictions on mutual socializing of nobles, public ceremonies, and marital relations. They could not meet without the Sultan’s special permission. This rule was so strict that the custom of feasts and guest hospitality completely disappeared at that time.
Alauddin’s Administrative Reforms
Like his previous Sultans, Alauddin had supreme powers of executive, legislature, and judiciary. He claimed to be God’s representative or Caliph on earth. For centralization of administration, he kept provincial subedars and other officials under his full control. He never accepted the interference of ulema in his political decisions. Ministers only advised Alauddin and handled the daily affairs of the state. During Alauddin’s time, five important ministers handled important administrative works-
Diwan-e-Wazarat
The chief minister was called wazir. He was the most powerful minister. According to Barani, ‘Kingship is worthless without a wise wazir’ and ‘For the Sultan, there is no greater source of campaigns and fame than a wise wazir, nor can there be.’ Besides finance, he also had to lead royal armies during military campaigns. During Alauddin’s reign, Khwaja Khatir, Tajuddin Kafur, Nusrat Khan, etc., worked in the post of wazir.
Ariz-e-Mumalik
Diwan-e-Ariz was the war minister and military minister. He was the second most important minister after the wazir. His main duties were recruiting soldiers, distributing salaries, maintaining army efficiency and equipment, going to the battlefield with the commander during war, etc. During Alauddin’s rule, Malik Nasiruddin Mulk Sirajuddin was appointed to the post of Ariz-e-Mumalik. His deputy was Khwaja Haji Nayab Ariz. Alauddin followed a policy of kindness towards his soldiers.
Diwan-e-Insha
Diwan-e-Insha was the third most important department of the state, whose head was called Dabir-e-Khas or Dabir-e-Mumlikat. The important duty of Dabir-e-Khas was to prepare drafts of royal proclamations and letters and correspond with provincial governors and local officials. The assistant secretary of Dabir-e-Khas was called ‘Dabir’.
Diwan-e-Rasalat
This was the fourth minister of the state. It was mainly related to the foreign department and diplomatic correspondence. It prepared drafts of letters sent to neighboring states and maintained close contact with ambassadors from foreign countries. According to some historians, this was a department related to religion.
Establishment of New Departments
Alauddin Khilji established two new departments: Diwan-e-Mustakharaj and Diwan-e-Risayat. Diwan-e-Mustakharaj was related to economic matters, which investigated and collected arrears of revenue officers, while Diwan-e-Risayat kept control over the trader class.
In addition, there were some other officials like secretaries. The head of the Sultan’s bodyguards was called Sarjandar. The main official overseeing the royal palace works was Waki-e-Dar. In addition, some other palace officials were Amir-e-Akhur, Shahna-e-Peel, Amir-e-Shikar, Sharabdar, Muhardar, etc. For efficient operation of market system, Alauddin also created some new posts. ‘Shahna-e-Mandi’ was the market superintendent. ‘Muhtasib’ was the guardian of public conduct and inspector of weights and measures.
Justice Administration
The highest source of justice and the supreme court was the Sultan himself. After the Sultan was Sadr-e-Jahan or Qazi-ul-Quzat, under whom Nayab Qazi or Adl worked. Muftis assisted them. An officer named Amir-e-Dad presented influential personalities in court over whom Qazis had no control.
Police and Intelligence
Alauddin effectively used the police and intelligence department during his reign. Kotwal was the chief officer of the police department. To make the police department more active, Alauddin formed a new post Diwan-e-Risayat, which kept control over the trader class. Shahna and magistrate were also officers related to the police department. Muhtasib was the censor officer who looked after the conduct of the general public.
The chief officer of the intelligence department established by Alauddin was Barid-e-Mumalik. Under his control, Barids (messengers) worked. In addition to Barid, other informants were called Muhniyan. Muhniyan entered people’s homes to prevent minor crimes. In fact, it was due to these officers that Alauddin’s market-control policy was successful.
Postal System
Skilled horsemen and clerks were appointed at the postal stations established by Alauddin, who delivered news throughout the state. Through them, information about rebellions and war campaigns was received quickly.
Military Administration
To suppress internal rebellions, successfully face external invasions, and for empire expansion, Alauddin Khilji formed a large, strong, and permanent army. Alauddin was the first Sultan of Delhi to form a permanent army. He centralized the army and started the practice of direct recruitment of soldiers and cash salaries. Although his army had cavalry, infantry, and elephant troops, cavalry was the most important.
According to Amir Khusro, a troop of ten thousand soldiers was called ‘Tuman’. Soldiers recruited after thorough examination were called ‘Murattab’. Alauddin made new rules regarding branding horses and recording soldiers’ descriptions. Diwan-e-Ariz kept the list and description of every soldier. According to Farishta, Alauddin had about 4 lakh 75 thousand equipped and uniformed soldiers. A ‘Ek Aspa’ (one-horse) soldier was given 234 tankas annually, and a ‘Do Aspa’ (two-horse) 378 tankas annually.
Alauddin Khilji’s Land Revenue Reforms
End of Intermediaries
To increase royal income, end intermediaries, and prevent concentration of wealth, Alauddin made reforms in the field of land revenue. He first took back land given under milk, inam, and waqf, converted it to khalsa land, and ended the privileges of khuts, muqaddams, etc., revenue officials. In rural areas, the intermediary class like khut, muqaddam, chaudhary received 10 percent of land revenue as kismat-e-khuti, haquq-e-khuti, which Alauddin Khilji abolished. Also, they did not have to pay land revenue on their land. Alauddin Khilji had their land measured and fixed land revenue on it too. The Sultan wanted to make their condition so miserable that keeping weapons, riding horses, wearing good clothes, or enjoying any other pleasure of life became impossible for them. As a result, their condition became so bad that Barani says they no longer rode Arab horses and did not eat betel. No one could keep their head high, and there was no sign of gold, silver, tanka, jital, or any unnecessary thing in their homes… Due to poverty, the women of khuts and muqaddams used to go to Muslims’ homes to grind and do utensils.
Masahat
Alauddin was the first Muslim ruler who fixed tax on the actual income after measuring the land (masahat). Alauddin was the first Sultan who considered ‘Biswa’ as a unit for land measurement. A unified system of land measurement was adopted, and tax was collected most uniformly. First, land was measured in the Doab region, and intermediaries were ended. The result was that gradually zamindars came into the position of peasants.
50 Percent Land Revenue in Doab
Alauddin Khilji newly fixed tax in the Doab region and set land revenue at 50 percent of total production. Emphasis was given to collecting tax in kind. He also imposed two new taxes, such as grazing tax on milk-giving animals and on houses and huts. There is also mention of a tax called karhi. Jizya tax was collected from non-Muslims. Khams tax: 4/5 part to the state and 1/5 to soldiers. Zakat was a religious tax taken only from Muslims, which was 1/40th of property.
Establishment of Diwan-e-Mustakharaj
All hereditary tax assessors and collectors were brought under one law for revenue collection. A new department called Diwan-e-Mustakharaj was established, which investigated and collected the arrears of revenue-collecting officials. This rule was implemented so firmly by the Sultan’s deputy vizier Sharf Qai and his other officials that people started considering revenue department officials worse than fever. Accountancy became a great crime, and no one wanted to give their daughter to a munshi (clerk).
Alauddin Khilji’s Market Control Policy
Extensive information about Alauddin Khilji’s economic policy is available from Ziauddin Barani’s work Tarikh-e-Firozshahi. Some information about Alauddin’s market control policy is also available from Amir Khusro’s book ‘Khazain-ul-Futuh’, Ibn Battuta’s book ‘Rehla’, and Isami’s book ‘Futuh-us-Salatin’.
Objective of Market Control Policy
There is also disagreement among historians regarding the reasons behind Alauddin’s market system. Contemporary historian Barani says that ‘The fundamental objective behind implementing these reforms was to prepare a large and powerful army to counter the terrible Mongol invasions.’
According to Farishta, the Sultan had about 50,000 slaves, on whom there was excessive expenditure. Keeping all these expenses in view, Alauddin had created the new economic policy.
On the other hand, historians like Saxena, Nizami, and Irfan Habib believe that it was implemented keeping the needs of the general public in mind, and Barani also considers it motivated by public needs in his second book Fatwa-e-Jahandari. Amir Khusro says that ‘The Sultan implemented these reforms with the spirit of public welfare.’
In fact, Alauddin needed a large powerful army to fulfill his ambition for empire expansion and to deal with ongoing Mongol invasions. At a time when the value of currency decreased due to the flow of wealth from the south, prices of goods increased, so Alauddin made reforms in the economic field and implemented the market control system.
Whether Alauddin’s price control was implemented only in the Delhi region or throughout the Sultanate is a controversial question. Moreland and K.S. Lal have said that price control was implemented only in Delhi, but Banarasi Prasad Saxena has refuted this view.
Alauddin did not want to increase soldiers’ salaries because it would put more burden on state resources. But to keep soldiers alive on limited salaries, he issued some royal orders by which prices of all things from essential items of life to luxury items like slaves, horses, weapons, silk, and daily materials were fixed, and supply and demand rules were regulated as much as possible. The Sultan fixed every soldier’s salary at 2, 3, 4 tankas annually and 78 tankas for those keeping two horses. He fixed prices of daily use items by an act. Prices of some important grains were as follows- Wheat 7.5 jital per maund, rice 5 jital per maund, barley 4 jital per maund, urad 5 jital per maund, butter or ghee 1 jital per 2.5 kg.
Three Types of Markets
Alauddin Khilji’s market system worked on a progressive method of production-cost, and under it, three types of markets were established-
Shahna-e-Mandi
The market named Shahna-e-Mandi was established for the sale of grains. Under the rationing system, to make grains available in sufficient quantity, the Sultan started taking land tax in kind instead of cash in the Doab region and khalsa villages around the capital, while half revenue in grain and half in cash was collected from the Jhain region of eastern Rajasthan. During famine or flood, Alauddin gave half maund grain to every household. Rationing system was Alauddin’s new thinking. Grains were stored in Delhi city’s royal granaries (government warehouses) to be sent to markets when needed. No individual could hoard grain. The sale of main grains was under the control of an officer named Shahna, and above all was a Shahna-e-Mandi. Alauddin appointed Malik Qabul as Shahna-e-Mandi of the grain market.
Sarai-e-Adl
This was mainly a cloth market where cloth, sugar, herbs, dry fruits, lamp oil, and other manufactured goods came for sale. Through this market, precious clothes were made available to amirs. To ensure amirs got clothes at fixed prices, the state gave royal assistance to Multani traders.
Sarai-e-Adl was built in a large field near Badaun. Goods worth from one tanka to 10,000 tankas came for sale in this market. The chief officer of Sarai-e-Adl was called Rayparwana.
Market for Horses, Cattle, and Slave Girls
Due to brokers in the buying and selling of animals, animal prices increased. Brokers were removed from the animal market. Prices of all animals were fixed, such as a good horse 120 tankas and an ordinary pony 10 tankas.
Main Officers of Market Control
Diwan-e-Riyasat
The entire market control arrangement of Alauddin was operated by a department called Diwan-e-Riyasat. Malik Yaqub was made the head of Diwan-e-Riyasat, and Malik Kabul was appointed to the post of Shahna-e-Mandi. Employees working under him inspected the buying, selling, and arrangement of goods. Every trader coming to Delhi to trade had to register his name in Diwan-e-Riyasat. To successfully enforce price control, Muhtasib (censor) and Nazir (weights and measures officer) were also appointed.
Shahna-e-Mandi
The superintendent of every market, called Shahna-e-Mandi, was the high officer of the market. Under him were Barids (royal spies) who roamed inside the market, inspected the market, and kept giving information to the Sultan about the market arrangement. Under Barid worked Munhiyan (personal spies). Thus, the Sultan received information from three different sources.
Traders had to register their names in a government office. They had to pledge to take their goods to an open place called Sarai-Adl inside Badaun gate for sale. They had to give sufficient surety for their conduct. There was provision for severe punishment for violating the Sultan’s rules. To prevent shopkeepers from using light weights, the order was that as much as the weight was less, that much flesh would be cut from their body. Barani greatly praises the market arrangement and believes that price control was completely successful. There was never a difference of more than half jital in prices.
Alauddin Khilji’s Cultural Achievements
During the Sultan’s reign, high-class scholars like Amir Khusro and Hasan Nizami received royal patronage. Barani writes that Alauddin had no acquaintance with knowledge, but according to Farishta, the Sultan learned Persian after ascending the throne.
The Sultan was a lover of building construction and knowledge. Many forts were built by his order. The most famous among them was the circular Alai Fort or Kushk-e-Siri, whose walls were made of stone, brick, and lime and had seven gates. It is considered an excellent example of early Turkish art.
According to Amir Khusro, Alauddin had many destroyed mosques rebuilt. In 1311 AD, he started work to extend Qutub and build a new minar taller than the old Qutub Minar in the courtyard of that mosque, but it was not completed during his lifetime. In 1311 AD itself, he built a huge gate of red sandstone and marble for the mosque, around which small gates were built.
Alauddin is famous in history for his imperialistic works. He was a brave and capable soldier. In the beginning of his reign, he showed wonderful valor as a ruler too. Almost all military campaigns of his time were successful. He took Balban’s militaristic ideals to a justifiable limit. He deserves the credit for ruling for the first time free from the influence and guidance of the priestly class. He wanted to make his rule strong at any cost.
Alauddin was a despotic Sultan; his ambitions were limitless and uncontrolled. His methods were principle-less. Barani writes that Alauddin shed more innocent blood than even Pharaoh was accused of. The sorrowful end of Jalaluddin Firoz, his cruel treatment of the deceased Sultan’s relatives, and his merciless actions against new Muslims, in which their women and children were not spared, are proofs of the Sultan’s harsh nature.
He was extremely suspicious and jealous. Sometimes he even behaved ungratefully towards those from whom he received great help, such as after ascending the throne, he deprived many such nobles who had supported him of their wealth and homes, sent them to prisons, and had some blinded and killed. The Sultan had become jealous of his own commander Zafar Khan’s valor. When the Mongols killed him, his master was displeased that he got rid of him without humiliation.
Adverse Effects of Alauddin Khilji’s Policies
But the military monarchy that Alauddin Khilji tried to build was founded on sand. From above, it appeared strong due to his harshness, but it created resentment in the minds of suppressed nobles and humiliated heroes. They naturally waited for opportunities to regain their lost prestige and power.
A major flaw in his system was that it could not gain the voluntary support and goodwill of the ruled class, which is necessary for the security of any government. Its existence depended on the strong personality of its creator. Signs of its destruction began to appear even in the Sultan’s last days and fully manifested shortly after his death. An appropriate retribution for his ingratitude towards his uncle fell on his family, and the one in whom the Sultan had excessive faith destroyed his power and prestige. That was his own favorite trusted commander Malik Kafur.
Under Malik Kafur’s instigation, Alauddin appointed his minor son Shihabuddin Umar as heir instead of his son Khizr Khan. Alauddin Khilji, suffering from dropsy, spent his last days in great difficulty and died on 5 January 1316 AD. After Alauddin’s death, Kafur enthroned Shihabuddin and seized power. Now Malik Kafur started dreaming of becoming Sultan himself.
Some time later, with the desire to become Sultan himself, Malik Kafur started imprisoning all of Alauddin’s sons and blinding them. One of Alauddin’s sons, Mubarak Khilji, somehow managed to escape from prison. Finally, after about 35 days of enjoying power, Malik Kafur was killed.
Qutbuddin Mubarak Shah Khilji (1316-1320 AD)
After Kafur’s murder, Mubarak Shah Khilji himself became the guardian of Sultan Shihabuddin. Later, he blinded his younger brother and became Sultan himself as Qutbuddin Mubarak Shah Khilji. During his reign, peace generally prevailed in the state. Mubarak Shah Khilji assumed titles like ‘Al Imam’, ‘Ul Imam’, and ‘Khilafat-ullah’. He declared himself the supreme religious authority of Islam and ‘Al-Wasiq-Billah’ (Caliph of heaven and earth).
Qutbuddin Mubarak Shah Khilji: Conquests of Devagiri and Gujarat
Qutbuddin Mubarak Shah Khilji ruled for about four years. During his reign, there was peace in the entire country except Gujarat and Devagiri. Mubarak also ordered attacks on the territory of Warangal’s ruler Pratap Rudradev and Khusrav Khan on the Ma’bar (Madura) region.
During Mubarak Shah Khilji’s time, Gujarat’s Subedar Zafar Khan, who was Mubarak Khilji’s father-in-law, rebelled. Mubarak Khilji forcibly suppressed it. Similarly, Devagiri’s ruler Hargopal Dev also rebelled. His rebellion was somewhat more powerful, so Mubarak Khilji himself led a large army against him. Hargopal Dev tried to escape but was caught and killed. He built a huge mosque in Devagiri and returned to Delhi. Besides these victories, there is no description of any other victory.
Reform Works of Mubarak Shah Khilji
In the early period of his rule, Qutbuddin Mubarak Khilji did some popular works. He released political prisoners and started giving his soldiers six months’ advance salary. All confiscated jagirs of scholars and important persons were returned. Alauddin Khilji’s harsh punishment system and market control system were also abolished, and the harsh laws that were made were eliminated. This brought immense joy and satisfaction to the people.
Mubarak Khilji was a person indulged in luxury. He liked the company of naked women and men very much. Due to this company, he sometimes came to the royal court wearing women’s clothes. According to Barani, Mubarak Khilji sometimes ran naked among courtiers. He started spending all his time in wine and beauties. He left all his royal work to Khusro Khan by making him prime minister, contrary to the Sultan’s prestige.
Khusrav Khan was a low-class Gujarati (Barai) who had converted his religion. He wanted to remove Qutbuddin Mubarak Khilji and become Sultan himself, so Khusrav Khan stabbed and killed Mubarak Shah Khilji on 15 April 1320 AD and assumed the title Nasiruddin Khusro Shah and became the Sultan of Delhi Sultanate.
The powerful ruler of the frontier region, Ghazi Tughlaq, opposed Khusro and sought help from other provincial officials. He accused Khusro Khan of anti-Islam conduct, betrayal towards Alauddin’s lineage, and other crimes. Finally, Ghazi Tughlaq attacked the Delhi Sultanate and defeated Khusro Khan and established control over power.
Thus, various circumstances and individuals played a role in the fall of the Khilji dynasty, especially Mubarak Shah Khilji. Khilji rulers obtained the Delhi throne through bloodshed and finally their dynasty fell through bloodshed.
Causes of the Fall of Khilji Dynasty
The Khilji Dynasty (1290-1320 AD) was founded by Jalaluddin Firoz Khilji, but its real rise and fall are associated with Alauddin Khilji’s (1296-1316 AD) rule. The dynasty ended with the murder of Qutbuddin Mubarak Shah Khilji when Ghazi Tughlaq seized power. The main causes of the fall of the Khilji Dynasty were as follows:
Dissatisfaction from Alauddin’s harsh policies: Alauddin’s despotic and oppressive policies (such as rebellion-preventive ordinances, property confiscation, intelligence system, and market control) created deep dissatisfaction among nobles, amirs, and the public. These policies crushed personal ambitions, resulting in no support from the ruled class. After Alauddin’s death, this dissatisfaction erupted as rebellion.
Personality-dependent administrative system: Alauddin’s rule was based on his strong personality. After his death (1316 AD), successors proved weak. The foundation of the rule was “laid on sand”, which seemed strong while he was alive but collapsed later. Successors lacked leadership ability.
Malik Kafur’s ambition and betrayal: Alauddin’s trusted commander Malik Kafur instigated in his last days. Under Kafur’s influence, Alauddin removed elder son Khizr Khan and appointed minor Shihabuddin Umar as heir. After death, Kafur seized power, blinded Alauddin’s sons, and tried to become Sultan himself. He was killed in only 35 days, but this increased dynastic instability.
Incompetence of successors and family discord: Shihabuddin Umar was a minor puppet ruler. Mubarak Shah Khilji (1316-1320 AD) initially did popular reforms (such as releasing prisoners, returning jagirs, removing harsh laws), but later drowned in luxury. He behaved indecently in court, handed over state work to a low person like Khusro Khan. Family bloodshed: Mubarak blinded his brother, showing internal weakness of the dynasty.
Khusro Khan’s conspiracy and murder: Mubarak Shah made Khusro Khan (a converted Hindu, Gujarati Barai) prime minister, who was ambitious. Khusro killed Mubarak on 15 April 1320 AD and became Sultan himself. His anti-Islam conduct and betrayal united Muslim nobles.
Provincial rebellions and external interference: Rebellions occurred in Gujarat and Devagiri. Frontier ruler Ghazi Tughlaq (founder of Tughlaq dynasty) opposed Khusro Khan, took help from provincial officials, attacked Delhi, and seized power. This ended the Khilji dynasty.
Retribution for bloody beginning: The dynasty started with bloodshed (Alauddin killed uncle Jalaluddin). This returned as karma when family murders and betrayals became common. According to historian Barani, “The throne obtained through bloodshed was destroyed through bloodshed.”
Overall, the fall of the Khilji dynasty was the result of internal weaknesses (lack of leadership, conspiracies), negativity of Alauddin’s legacy, and external challenges. It ended in just 30 years, after which the Tughlaq dynasty was established.
