Introduction to Buddhism and Its Major Schools
Buddhism represents one of the world’s major religions, originating in ancient India through the teachings of Gautama Buddha. The Buddhist tradition encompasses multiple schools of thought, each offering distinct paths to enlightenment and liberation from suffering.
Theravada Buddhism (The Way of the Elders)
Understanding Theravada Buddhism
Theravada Buddhism, also known as the “School of the Elders” or “Sthaviravada,” stands as one of the oldest and most orthodox forms of Buddhism. Theravada Buddhists regard the ancient Pali scriptures as authoritative texts and trace their lineage directly to the elder disciples (Sanskrit: “Sthavira,” Pali: “Thera”) of Buddha.
This conservative school is also called the “Way of the Elders” or “Doctrine of the Elders” because its followers maintained strict adherence to traditional teachings without accepting modifications or additions over time.
Key Characteristics of Theravada Buddhism
Theravada Buddhism makes a clear distinction between ordinary laypeople and Buddhist monks. According to this school, attaining Buddhahood is not possible for everyone. The primary center of Theravada Buddhism was Kashmir in ancient times.
Today, Theravada Buddhism flourishes in Sri Lanka, Myanmar, Thailand, Cambodia, and Laos. Due to its geographical concentration, scholars often refer to it as the “Southern School” of Buddhism.
Major Buddhist Schools and Sects
Mahasanghika: The Great Assembly
The first major division within the Buddhist Sangha occurred during the 4th century BCE at the Second Council of Vaishali. A group separated from the Sthaviravadins (Theravadins) and became known as the Mahasanghika, meaning “Great Assembly.”
The Mahasanghikas believed that every person possesses an inherent capacity to attain Buddhahood. They argued that with proper time and circumstances, anyone could achieve enlightenment. Their principal center was Magadha. Scholars generally accept that the Mahasanghika movement played a crucial role in the emergence of Mahayana Buddhism.
Hinayana Buddhism: The Lesser Vehicle
Core Principles of Hinayana Buddhism
Followers of Hinayana Buddhism considered only the words of Buddha (Buddhavachana) as authentic. The doctrines of this sect are simple and straightforward, closely following what Gautama Buddha originally taught. Buddha is regarded as a great human being rather than a supernatural or divine entity.
Hinayana Buddhism is atheistic and emphasizes karma (action) as the foundation of spiritual progress. This school rejects fatalism as detrimental to life and instead emphasizes self-reliance. According to Hinayana teachings, each individual must attain Nirvana through personal effort.
Buddha’s Core Teachings in Hinayana
Buddha himself stated that all material things are impermanent. Life is filled with suffering and is transient. To achieve liberation from these sorrows and attain eternal peace, one must make individual efforts. The goal of Hinayana Buddhism is achieving Arhatship for oneself through the Noble Eightfold Path.
Followers of Hinayana initially did not create Buddha statues. Instead, they used empty spaces or footprints as symbols representing Buddha.
The Four Stages of Shravaka
Hinayana Buddhism is also called “Shravakayana.” A Shravaka is someone who, troubled by life’s sufferings, progresses toward Nirvana. The Shravaka passes through four stages:
- Srotapanna (Stream-enterer): This Shravaka enters the stream of personality development. They can attain four types of mindfulness: Buddha-remembrance, Dharma-remembrance, Sangha-remembrance, and virtue-remembrance. Such individuals attain Nirvana after seven births.
- Sakridagami (Once-returner): At this stage, the Srotapanna destroys their mental afflictions. Such persons attain Nirvana in just one more birth.
- Anagami (Non-returner): This Shravaka attains Nirvana in the present life itself.
- Arhat (Worthy One): When the Shravaka achieves Nirvana, they receive the designation of Arhat.
Hinayana Buddhism thus preserves the ancient form of Buddhist teachings. Its main faith rests in karma (action) and dharma (righteousness). This school places immense importance on Buddha, Dhamma, and Sangha. Religious texts of this school are written in Pali, the common language during Buddha’s time.
Due to the absence of worship and devotional practices, Hinayana did not become as popular among common people. This school is predominantly practiced in Myanmar, Sri Lanka, and Cambodia.
Mahayana Buddhism: The Greater Vehicle
Understanding Mahayana Buddhism
Mahayana Buddhism means “Great Vehicle” or the broad path through which maximum beings can attain the bliss of Nirvana. This branch of Buddhism is also called Ekayana, Agrayana, Bodhisattvayana, and Buddhayana, as well as “Northern Buddhism.”
Currently, the majority of Buddhists worldwide follow Mahayana Buddhism. This school is prevalent in China, Tibet, Korea, and Mongolia.
Origins of Mahayana Buddhism
Mahayana Buddhism emerged from the Mahasanghika movement after subsequent modifications. During the Second Buddhist Council at Vaishali in the 1st century BCE, elder monks expelled dissenting monks from the Sangha. The separated eastern branch monks formed their own assembly, calling themselves Mahasanghika and labeling the Theravadins as Hinasanghika. These groups later developed into Mahayana and Hinayana respectively.
Mahayanists claim that the authentic teachings of Buddha, available in the Vinaya and Sutras and conforming to Dharma, are embodied in Mahayana Buddhism.
Core Teachings of Mahayana Buddhism
The door of Mahayana Buddhism was open to all beings, including householders who could become followers. Every person can progress on the path to Buddhahood through Bodhicharya (practicing compassion, sympathetic joy, loving-kindness, and equanimity) or by cultivating the six perfections (Paramitas): generosity, morality, patience, vigor, meditation, and wisdom.
However, the Mahayana practitioner does not wish to become Buddha alone, because their solitary enlightenment brings no benefit while their companions remain trapped in worldly suffering. They contemplate that whatever merit they have accumulated should be used for the welfare of all beings.
Bodhisattva Concept and Worship
Mahayana Buddhism regarded Buddha as equivalent to God and incorporated the concept of Bodhisattvas. This resulted in the worship of Buddha and Bodhisattvas. This worship includes reverence, offerings, confession of sins, rejoicing in merit of all beings, constant pursuit of enlightenment, prayer for the welfare of all beings, and dedication of merit—the highest state of worship. Eventually, this became the foundation for image worship.
The concept of countless Buddhas for the innumerable worlds of this universe was developed. Initially, there were six Buddhas, which later increased to twenty-four and eventually became countless. Each Buddha has two assistant Bodhisattvas who inspire all humanity toward the true Dharma. Among Bodhisattvas, Avalokiteshvara is the most venerated. According to Mahayanists, they will not attain Buddhahood until all humans achieve Nirvana. Other prominent Bodhisattvas include Maitreya and Manjushri.
Social Aspects of Mahayana Buddhism
Mahayana Buddhism established a path of social progress not only for monks but also for householders. According to this sect, anyone can attain Nirvana while living as a householder. This provision for householder practitioners to achieve liberation was absent in Hinayana, which is why Mahayana spread more widely.
Mahayana followers taught that the spirit of charity in householders removes craving, fear, and anxiety. Therefore, householders should give abundantly. They should regard their sons as enemies because sons are objects of excessive love and attraction, which can turn fathers away from Buddha’s teachings. Love can deflect one from the right path. Householders should renounce worldly possessions so that at death they can experience the bliss of desirelessness.
Mahayana Art and Image Making
Mahayana Buddhism is a devotion-centered school, and under its influence, the creation of Buddha statues began. The art of Bharhut, Bodh Gaya, and Sanchi was symbolic. With the prevalence of image worship, Buddha and Bodhisattva statues replaced symbolic representations.
During Kanishka’s reign, Buddha statues were first created in the Gandhara art style. Buddha was depicted as a yogi and monk, while Bodhisattvas were shown in princely attire (adorned with garments and ornaments).
Buddha statues were created depicting meditation and the state of achieving Buddhahood. Mahayanists constructed Buddha statues and stupas for prayer throughout the world. Greeks, Christians, Persians, and followers of other religions were influenced by Mahayana worship methods, stupa architecture, monastic organization, lifestyle, and clothing.
Prominent thinkers of Mahayana Buddhism included Ashvaghosha, Nagarjuna, and Asanga.
Establishment of the Buddhist Sangha
Formation of Buddhist Monastic Order
In Buddhist tradition, the Sangha forms an essential part of the “Three Jewels” (Buddha, Dhamma, Sangha). After his sermon at Sarnath, Buddha established the monastic order with five Brahmin monks. Subsequently, in Varanasi, Yasha (a merchant’s son), his five young friends—Vimala, Subahu, Punnajita, and Gavampati—and fifty other relatives joined the Buddhist Sangha. The Buddhist monastic order began with these sixty monks. Prior to this, Ajivikas and Jains already had established monastic communities.
Rules and Regulations of Buddhist Sangha
Those joining the Sangha were called Bhikkhus (monks), who severed family ties, adopted ascetic life, obtained food through alms, and traveled spreading Buddha’s teachings. Monks had to follow established Sangha rules, and violations resulted in punishment.
The Sangha’s door was open to all, allowing people from all classes and castes to join without discrimination. However, Buddha soon prohibited entry to minors (under 15 years), thieves, murderers, debtors, royal servants, slaves, and sick persons due to social and political circumstances.
Initially, women were not permitted to join the Sangha, but later, Buddhist nuns (Bhikkhunis) were also admitted as members.
Democratic Organization of Buddhist Sangha
Buddha believed in democratic governance and was born in a republic. He organized the Sangha based on democratic principles. He considered the principles of ancient tribal life useful for the Sangha. The classless tribal life’s social unity, mutual brotherhood, and detachment from property accumulation are clearly reflected in Sangha rules (Vinaya). In the Sangha, there was no hierarchy—no superior or inferior. Buddha did not appoint any successor but regarded Dharma and Vinaya as the teacher.
Buddhist Councils (Sangitis)
Understanding Buddhist Councils
Sangiti means “council or assembly” or communal recitation. Buddhist Councils refer to conferences or assemblies organized shortly after Buddha’s Parinirvana to compile his teachings and recite or chant them collectively. These are often called “Dhamma Sangitis.”
First Buddhist Council
The First Buddhist Council was held three months after Buddha’s Parinirvana in 483 BCE under the patronage of Magadha King Ajatashatru at the entrance of the Sattapanni Cave near Rajagriha (modern Rajgir in Bihar). Elder Mahakassapa (Mahakashyapa) presided over this council.
During this council, Buddha’s teachings were compiled and divided into two Pitakas: Sutta and Vinaya. Since five hundred Arhat monks participated, it was called “Panchasatika.” Mahakassapa’s seven months of effort ensured Buddhist teachings would survive for the next five thousand years.
Second Buddhist Council
The Second Buddhist Council occurred one century after Buddha’s Mahaparinirvana in the 4th century BCE under the patronage of Magadha King Kalashoka at Valukarama (Kutagarashala) in Vaishali.
This council was organized under Elder Revata’s mediation to resolve disagreements over Vinaya rules, with participation from 700 eastern and western Arhat monks. The elders expelled the Vajjiputtakas, who accepted ten points contrary to Vinaya, from the Sangha.
The expelled Vajjiputtakas organized another great assembly in Pataliputra (or Kaushambi?) without the elder Arhats and established their separate school called Mahasanghika. Thus, the Buddhist Sangha clearly divided into two schools: Sthaviravada and Mahasanghika. Eventually, seventeen more schools emerged from Sthaviravada, dividing the Buddhist Sangha into eighteen schools.
Third Buddhist Council
According to Buddhist traditions, the Third Buddhist Council was held 236 years after Buddha’s Mahaparinirvana in 249 BCE under Mauryan Emperor Ashoka’s patronage at Pataliputra. This council was conducted at Ashokarama Vihara under Elder Moggaliputta Tissa’s presidency. The “Kathavatthu” was compiled as part of the Abhidhamma (Supreme Dharma).
During this council, Buddha’s teachings were reorganized, and a new Pitaka, “Abhidhamma,” was added. Thus, the Tripitaka (Sutta, Vinaya, and Abhidhamma) received its final form.
The council’s most important decision was sending monks to foreign lands to propagate Buddhism, resulting in the spread of Buddhism to Sri Lanka, Suvarnabhumi, Myanmar, Thailand, Laos, and Cambodia.
Fourth Buddhist Council
The Fourth Buddhist Council was held in the 1st century CE (approximately 78 CE) during Kanishka’s reign at Kundalvana in Kashmir or “Kuvana” in Jalandhara (according to Taranatha). Acharya Vasumitra presided, with Ashvaghosha as vice-president. A vast text called “Mahavibhasha” was composed in Sanskrit on the authoritative text of the Tripitaka and its commentaries, which was engraved on copper plates, sealed in a golden casket, and a great stupa was built over it. This stupa’s location remains unidentified.
During this council, Buddhism clearly divided into two branches: Hinayana and Mahayana. Subsequently, many missionaries traveled to Central Asia, Tibet, and China to spread Buddhism.
Pali Text Council in Lanka
Another fourth council was held 450 years after Buddha’s Parinirvana in Tamraparnni (Lanka Island) during Vattagamani Abhaya’s reign (103-77 BCE) under the presidency of Elder Dhammarakkhita at Aloka Lena Cave in Matula district. Buddha’s teachings were first written on palm leaves, earning it the name “Potthakaropana Sangiti” (Book-writing Council).
Fifth Shilaaksharopana Council
In 1871 CE, during Myanmar King Mindon Min’s reign, the Fifth Buddhist Council (Theravada) was held in the famous Rajaputra city of Mandalay under the presidency of Bhadanta Jagara Thera. The Tripitaka was engraved on 729 marble slabs (five and a half feet high, three and a half feet wide, and five inches thick). Therefore, this council is famous as the “Shilaaksharopana Sangiti” (Stone Inscription Council).
Mahapashana Cave Council
To commemorate the 2500th anniversary of Buddha’s Mahaparinirvana, a Buddhist Council was organized from May 17, 1954, to May 24, 1956, at Shrimangal in Yangon, Myanmar’s capital, in a specially constructed “Mahapashana Cave” resembling Rajagriha’s Sattapanni Cave. Monks from Myanmar, Cambodia, Laos, Nepal, Sri Lanka, India, Germany, and Thailand participated under Bhadanta Revata Thera’s presidency. This council permitted all participating countries to transcribe the Tripitaka in their native languages.
Reasons for Buddhism’s Popularity
Support for New Economic System
One major reason for Buddhism’s popularity was its support for the emerging economic system. The 6th century BCE was a period of economic progress based on iron technology. Several Vedic beliefs, such as maritime trade, interest, and debt systems, were unfavorable for urban life development. Brahmanical law-makers condemned debt and interest, but loans were essential for trade. Merchants and wealthy individuals needed rules and principles recognizing property protection and property rights. Buddhist literature did not prohibit debt and interest.
Buddhist texts mention taking loans for trade without condemnation. Vedic tradition considered maritime trade despicable, while Buddhist literature viewed it favorably. The teaching of non-possession (aparigraha) in Jain and Buddhist traditions applied only to monks, while non-stealing (asteya) indirectly supported property rights. Prohibiting debtors from entering the Buddhist Sangha also helped in this direction.
Brahmins and Kshatriyas faced trade restrictions, and the Vaishya class ranked third in social respect. Therefore, the Vaishya class gave special support to Buddhism. Scenes depicted in stupas at Gaya and Sanchi clearly show that the Vaishya class encouraged Buddhism by adopting it and making donations.
Animal protection was essential for the new agricultural system, while animal sacrifice was prevalent in Vedic rituals. Buddhist texts state that people criticized priests for animal sacrifice, and Shudras, Vaishyas, and Kshatriyas were rejecting their views. Suttanipata mentions that wealthy Brahmins were also taking refuge in Buddha, Dhamma, and Sangha for this reason.
Imperialist wars harmed both traders and farmers. The non-violent teachings of Buddhism opposed imperialist wars and animal sacrifice, benefiting both farmers and traders. Vedic religious conduct and attitudes toward courtesans were also incompatible with urban life, but Buddhist teachings suited urban life values. Thus, Buddhist principles were appropriate for the new economic system and urban life developing on surplus production.
Simple Principles of Buddhism
Buddhism emerged when Brahmin priests monopolized religion and society through Vedic rituals and sacrificial regulations. Additionally, several wandering sects propagated amoral doctrines, causing doubt, chaos, and distress among people. Religious and social life was filled with caste discrimination, hierarchy, and untouchability. In this environment, Buddha not only opposed Vedic rituals and traditions but also refuted the disorganized doctrines of extremist sects.
He provided society with a simple and accessible religion where anyone could attain Nirvana without caste discrimination. This new religion infused hope and enthusiasm in people’s minds, and all social classes supported it.
The simplicity of Buddhism aided its development. It was more accessible than Brahmanical and Jain religions. It required no expensive sacrifices, greedy priests, or animal sacrifices. Anyone could achieve life’s ultimate goal through virtuous conduct. Buddha’s “Middle Way” was practical for common people.
Buddha’s Influential Personality
Buddha’s influential personality also contributed to Buddhism’s development. Despite being born into royalty, he renounced worldly pleasures for humanity’s welfare and adopted ascetic life. People were impressed by this sacrifice and perceived that Buddha was engaged in selfless public welfare.
Buddha’s method of preaching was also impressive. He delivered sermons in Pali, the contemporary vernacular language. He met people and taught worldly impermanence in their language. He presented his ideas logically through stories, proverbs, and idioms. He conquered opponents through reason and love. He employed humor and satire to enlighten the ignorant. His love and compassion were so powerful that even the dacoit Angulimala and the courtesan Amrapali became followers of the true Dharma.
Buddhism’s Principle of Equality
The principle of equality played a crucial role in making Buddhism popular. It contained no discrimination or hierarchical feelings. Its door was open to Brahmins, Kshatriyas, Vaishyas, Shudras, women, and Chandalas alike. People of all castes and classes could adopt it.
Royal Patronage
Royal patronage greatly assisted Buddhism’s propagation. Buddha, born into royalty, received support from several Kshatriya kings. During his lifetime, Bimbisara, Ajatashatru, Prasenajit, and rulers of various republics accepted his principles. Later, rulers like Ashoka, Kanishka, Harshavardha, and Pala kings patronized this religion, facilitating its spread.
Role of Sangha and Councils
The Buddhist Sangha also contributed to making Buddhism popular. Buddha organized the Buddhist Sangha on democratic foundations during his lifetime. Sangha monks lived regulated and virtuous lives. Their exemplary life influenced the people. Sangha members enthusiastically propagated Buddha’s messages.
The Sangha received support from many scholars and traders whose efforts spread Buddhism abroad. Scholars like Nagarjuna, Vasumitra, and Dharmakirti assisted in its propagation. Buddhist Councils also aided its spread.
Buddhism’s Contribution
Religious and Social Contributions
Buddhism made indelible contributions to Indian society, literature, art, religion, and philosophy. In the religious sphere, it challenged the supremacy of Vedas, priests, and sacrificial rituals. Now anyone could attain Buddhahood by following Buddha’s Middle Way. Its policy of non-violence encouraged animal protection, assisting the development of new agricultural systems and trade.
In the social sphere, Buddhism rejected the caste system, hierarchy, and discrimination, granting equality rights to all classes. It considered women equal to men in achieving Nirvana and opened the Sangha’s door to them. By establishing rules for monks regarding food, clothing, and virtuous conduct, Buddhism conceptualized socialism.
Impact on Politics and Philosophy
Buddhism also influenced Indian politics. Emperors like Ashoka renounced war and conquest policies. In Indian philosophy, Buddhism provided original philosophies of non-self (anatma), atheism, karma, and rebirth.
Educational and Literary Achievements
Buddhism’s achievements in education and literature development are significant. Buddhist monasteries became centers of religious and philosophical education. Nalanda and Vikramashila universities gained international fame, attracting foreign students.
Dharma principles and Sangha rules were compiled in Pali and Sanskrit. Events related to Buddha’s birth and life were artistically recorded. Pali literature depicts contemporary socio-economic conditions, serving as an excellent source of information about urban life and democratic administrative systems.
Artistic Contributions
The emergence and development of Buddhism profoundly influenced Indian art, affecting architecture, sculpture, and painting. Cave temples were constructed in Bihar’s Barabar Hills, Nasik, Ajanta, and Ellora caves due to Buddhism. Stupas, viharas, and chaityas were also built, whose distinctive style became known as “Buddhist architecture.” This art influenced Central Asian and Southeast Asian art as well.
Buddhist influence advanced sculpture development. Large and beautiful Buddha statues were created in metal and stone. Buddha images were made in the distinctive Gandhara and Mathura styles. Buddhist sculpture spread to Central Asia. Afghanistan’s Bamiyan housed the tallest Buddha statue.
Painting also progressed, with scenes from Buddha’s life artistically carved. The paintings in Bagh, Ajanta, and Ellora caves exemplify this excellence.
Cultural Exchange Through Buddhism
Buddhism’s spread facilitated Indian civilization and culture’s propagation abroad. Ashoka spread it to Sri Lanka and other countries. Kanishka extended it to Central Asia. Eventually, Buddhism spread to China, Japan, Southeast Asia, Tibet, and Nepal.
With its development, trade and cultural relations were established with these countries. Numerous Buddhist traders and missionaries went abroad, resulting in cultural exchange. Many scholars and seekers from abroad also came to India, notably Faxian, Xuanzang, Dharmasvamin, and Lama Taranatha. Foreign rulers influenced by Buddhism donated for its propagation in India.
Conclusion
Buddhism represents a transformative spiritual tradition that reshaped not only Indian society but also influenced countless cultures across Asia. From its origins in the teachings of Gautama Buddha to its evolution into distinct schools like Theravada and Mahayana, Buddhism continues to offer profound insights into the nature of suffering, compassion, and liberation.
The Buddhist Councils played crucial roles in preserving and propagating these teachings, ensuring that Buddha’s message of the Middle Way reached generations across continents. Today, Buddhism remains a living tradition, adapting to modern contexts while maintaining its essential teachings of mindfulness, compassion, and the path to enlightenment.
