The Indus Valley Civilization, also known as the Harappan Civilization, stands as one of the world’s oldest river valley civilizations. It flourished along the banks of the Indus and Ghaggar (ancient Saraswati) rivers. Following the prehistoric era, humans harnessed their experiences, intellect, and strength to conquer nature and their environment. This led to innovative inventions that made life more comfortable, secure, and convenient. Building on a Chalcolithic foundation, a fully developed urban civilization emerged in the Indus River Valley.
The first discovery of this ancient civilization was made by Charles Masson in 1826. Later, in 1872, Alexander Cunningham conducted a survey, and Fleet wrote an article about it. However, strong support for this concept of ancient Indian glory came in 1921 when Dayaram Sahni excavated Harappa, and in 1922 when Rakhal Das Banerjee excavated Mohenjo-Daro. These excavations revealed an urban civilization in northwestern India dating back to around 2500 BCE, surpassing contemporary civilizations like Egypt and Mesopotamia in development. While the Western world was still in a primitive stage, highly advanced people inhabited this Asian peninsula. Various researches now confirm that the roots of India’s social, religious, and material traditions lie in this developed civilization.
Naming the Indus Valley Civilization
Initially, evidence of this civilization came from Harappa and Mohenjo-Daro, both located in the Indus and its tributaries’ region, leading to the name “Indus Valley Civilization.” Later, remnants were found in areas like Ropar, Lothal, Kalibangan, Banawali, Rangpur, Bhagatrav, and Dholavira, extending beyond the Indus basin. Archaeologists then named it the “Harappan Civilization” after the first excavated and developed site, Harappa. Due to its protohistoric nature, it’s also called the “Protohistoric Civilization.” The widespread use of bronze tools earned it the title “Bronze Age Civilization.” Recently, some historians believe the Harappan Civilization spanned from the Indus to the invisible Saraswati River, prompting the name “Saraswati-Indus Civilization.”
The First Urbanization in the Indus Valley
Like other contemporary civilizations, the Indus Valley Civilization developed in river valleys. The fertile soil and water availability allowed for surplus production. This surplus led to the emergence of non-agricultural classes like merchants, artisans, and rulers, fostering urbanization. Thus, the Indus Civilization is often referred to as the “First Urbanization.” V. Gordon Childe noted the close link between urbanization, metallurgy, surplus production, specialization, class stratification, and state formation. These elements, combined with the invention and development of writing, sparked an urban revolution that paved the way for civilization’s advancement. Civilization represents a specific stage in human social evolution, far beyond the hunter-gatherer phase and even the Neolithic society, which lacked sufficient surplus production.
Creators of the Indus Valley Civilization
Historians differ on the origins and development of the Indus Civilization. Archaeologists like Sir John Marshall, Gordon Childe, and Mortimer Wheeler viewed it as a colonial branch of Mesopotamian civilization brought by Sumerians to the Indus region. They pointed to similarities in artifacts with Western civilizations. Wheeler argued that since Sumerian civilization predates Harappan, its influence was natural. Indus people learned much from Sumerians. To support this, scholars highlighted similarities: both were urban, used bricks, excelled in craftsmanship, and employed writing and the wheel.
Although seals, town planning, pottery, tools, and bricks from Mesopotamia and the Indus show some resemblances, the Indus urban system, planned city blocks, and drainage were more advanced than Sumerian. Sumerian bricks were raw, unshaped, and sun-dried, while Harappan bricks were fully baked. The scripts differ too—the Indus script is pictographic with 400 signs, versus Sumer’s 900 characters. Thus, the Indus Civilization’s origin cannot be attributed to Sumer.
Historians like K.N. Shastri, Pusalkar, and Bhagwan Singh consider Aryans the creators of both Indus and Vedic civilizations. Bhagwan Singh attempts to prove Harappan and Vedic cultures as one.
Dravidian Origin
Rakhal Das Banerjee credits Dravidians with building this civilization. Wheeler believes the “Dasyu” and “Das” mentioned in the Rigveda were its creators. Indeed, the Indus Civilization’s builders were likely Dravidians, as Rigvedic events suggest Aryans destroyed this advanced civilization.
Local Origin
Most historians, including Fairservis, the Alchins, Stuart Piggott, and Amalanand Ghosh, accept a local origin for Harappa, evolving from pre-Harappan sites. Local cultures predating the Indus Civilization formed its foundation.
The unique and indigenous elements in the Indus Civilization point to its local origins. Rural and Chalcolithic cultures from southern Afghanistan, Sindh, Rajasthan, Gujarat, Mundigak, Zhob, Kulli Nal, and Amri evolved into the Indus Civilization. These rural communities practiced agriculture, and excavations yielded tools and pottery similar to Harappa.
Chronology of the Indus Valley Civilization
Determining the Indus Civilization’s timeline is challenging. Mohenjo-Daro excavations revealed seven layers, suggesting it lasted at least 1,000 years. Sir John Marshall first dated it to 3250–2750 BCE based on Sargon’s era. Others proposed: Madho Sarup Vats (3500–2700 BCE), Dales (2900–1900 BCE), Ernest Mackay (2800–5500 BCE), C.J. Gadd (2350–1700 BCE), D.P. Agarwal (2350–1750 BCE), and Fairservis (2000–1500 BCE).
Mortimer Wheeler dated it to 2500–1700 BCE, based on Harappan seals from Mesopotamian sites like Ur and Kish, and Rigvedic evidence. Trade with Mesopotamia peaked during Sargon’s time, likely around 2500 BCE. Wheeler suggested Indra from the Rigveda destroyed Harappa’s fortifications, earning the title “Purandara” (fort destroyer). Mohenjo-Daro excavations indicate ruthless killings. Aryans likely invaded, destroying cities and massacring fleeing citizens. Aryans arrived in India around 1500 BCE, coinciding with the Indus Civilization’s end. No seals post-1500 BCE appear in Mesopotamian sites.
Later, radio-carbon dates from Mohenjo-Daro, Kot Diji, Kalibangan, Lothal, Rozdi, Surkotada, and Bara divided the civilization into three phases: Pre-Harappan (c. 3500–2600 BCE), Mature Harappan (c. 2600–1900 BCE), and Late Harappan (c. 1900–1300 BCE). Modern C-14 analysis accepts 2500–1700 BCE as the consensus timeline. By 2500 BCE, the Harappan Civilization reached its peak.
Geographical Extent of the Harappan Civilization
The Harappan Civilization’s extent was several times larger than other ancient civilizations. Its core was in Punjab and Sindh, but it included Punjab, Sindh, Balochistan, Gujarat, Rajasthan, Haryana, and western Uttar Pradesh’s fringes. Remnants have been reported from Maharashtra and the Ganga-Yamuna Doab. Recent research shows it stretched from northern Punjab to the Narmada-Tapti valley, and from western Balochistan to the eastern Ganga-Yamuna valley. Thus, it spanned from Sutkagen-Dor on the Makran coast in the west to Alamgirpur near Meerut (U.P.) in the east, and from Manda in Jammu-Kashmir in the north to Daimabad in Maharashtra in the south. In area, it covered 1,600 km east-west and 1,400 km north-south, totaling 1,299,600 sq km in a triangular region.
Harappan Sites in the Indian Subcontinent
Over 2,400 sites of this civilization have been identified in the Indian subcontinent, with 925 in India. Only a few have been excavated, representing early, mature, and late phases. Key regions include:
- Balochistan: Southern Balochistan has important sites like Sutkagen-Dor (Dasht River mouth), Sutkakoh (Shadi Kaur mouth), Balakot (Windar River mouth), and Dabarkot (east of Sonmiani Bay).
- Northwest Frontier: Artifacts center in the Gomal Valley, a key route to Afghanistan. Sites like Gumla show Indus remnants over pre-Indus deposits.
- Sindh: Famous sites include Mohenjo-Daro, Chanhu-Daro, Jhukar-Daro, Amri (Indus over pre-Indus), Kot Diji, Ali Murad, Rehman Dheri, and Rana Ghundai.
- Western Punjab: Fewer sites due to river course changes. Key ones: Dera Ismail Khan, Jalilpur, Rehman Dheri, Gumla, Chak-Purbana Stall.
- Bahawalpur: Sites along the dried Saraswati (Hakra/Ghaggar). No excavations yet.
- Rajasthan: Along the dried Saraswati, Kalibangan is key with two mounds like Harappa and Mohenjo-Daro. All sites in Ganganagar and Hanumangarh districts.
- Haryana: Banawali in Hisar is important. Others: Mitathal, Siswal, Rakhigarhi, Wara, Balu.
- Eastern Punjab Key sites: Ropar, Sanghol. Harappan deposits in Chandigarh. Others: Kotla Nihang Khan, Chak 86 Wara, Dher-Majra.
- Ganga-Yamuna Doab: Sites up to Alamgirpur (Meerut). Others: Hulas and Bargaon (Saharanpur), late Harappan.
- Jammu: Only Manda near Akhnoor, late Harappan.
- Gujarat: Post-1947 excavations revealed 22 sites, 14 in Kutch. Key: Rangpur, Lothal, Padri, Prabhas Patan, Rozdi, Desalpur, Meghm, Vetelod, Bhagatrav, Surkotada, Nageshwar, Kuntasi, Shikarpur, Dholavira.
- Maharashtra: Daimabad yielded pottery with Harappan script and a bronze hoard (charioteer, bull, rhinoceros, elephant), though dates are debated.
- Afghanistan: Mundigak (excavated by J.M. Casal) and Shortughai (discovered and excavated by Henri Frankfort). Shortughai was a lapis lazuli trading post.
It’s ironic that after discovering and excavating these sites, the Archaeological Survey of India and the government show indifference toward identifying and digging new ones. New research could reveal factors behind its rise and fall.
Major Harappan Sites
Of nearly 2,400 known sites, only six qualify as cities: Harappa, Mohenjo-Daro (Muanjo-Daro), Chanhu-Daro, Lothal, Kalibangan, and Banawali. The two most important are Harappa on the Ravi in Pakistan’s Punjab and Mohenjo-Daro (Mound of the Dead) in Sindh. They were 483 km apart, connected by the Indus. Chanhu-Daro is 130 km south of Mohenjo-Daro, and Lothal is on the Gulf of Khambhat in Gujarat. Kalibangan (black bangles) in Rajasthan and Banawali in Haryana are notable. All show mature Indus features. Coastal cities like Sutkagen-Dor and Surkotada also exhibit maturity.
Mohenjo-Daro
“Mohenjo-Daro” means “Mound of the Dead” in Sindhi. Located on the right bank of the Indus in Larkana district, Pakistan, it spans about 5 km. Considered the world’s oldest planned city, it was discovered by Rakhal Das Banerjee in 1922. Excavations began under John Marshall. Artifacts match Egyptian and Mesopotamian antiquity. Two mounds (east and west) feature a great bath and granary. Twenty-seven rooms of varying sizes, public buildings, and official residences were found.
Citadel Mound
The western citadel mound, also called “Stupa Mound,” had a Kushan stupa. Remnants include six pottery kilns, cotton fabric, elephant skull fragment, melted copper lumps, shell inlay strip, and a bronze dancing girl statue.
From the HR area, human statues include a bearded head. In the final phase, 42 skeletons were found scattered in houses and streets. About 1,398 seals (56.67% of inscriptions) were recovered. Stone statues include a 19 cm male torso of steatite, a 14 cm limestone male head, and another steatite figure.
Other finds: cotton and wool evidence, three Proto-Australoid or Caucasian heads, humpbacked bull seal, six pottery kilns, boat on a pot, latticed decorated pot, fabric imprint on wet clay, Pashupati Shiva-like figure, meditative seal. A composite figure (half-human, half-tiger), grinding stone, clay scale. Burial evidence: partial and full interment.
Great Bath
The Great Bath is the most notable monument of the Indus Civilization. It measures 32.9 m east-west and 54.86 m north-south. The central pool is 11.89 m long, 7.01 m wide, and 2.44 m deep, with 2.43 m wide stairs at north and south ends. Floored with baked bricks, joints used gypsum, outer walls had 1-inch bitumen plaster. Slope drains southwest. Surrounding verandas and rooms (possibly two-storied, with stairs) for changing clothes. Eastern room had a double-brick well for water. Mackay suggests it was for communal religious bathing. Marshall called it a “wonder of the ancient world.”
Granary
West of the bath, a massive building on a 1.52 m platform is the largest baked-brick structure in Harappan culture, 45.72 m long and 22.86 m wide, with 25 compartments. Wheeler identified it as a granary; others as a state storehouse. Ventilated, main entrance faced the river for grain transport. Likely stored tax grain. Similar in Egypt and Mesopotamia.
Assembly Hall
South of the citadel, a 27.43 m square ruined public building had a roof on 20 square pillars in four rows of five. North entrance, platforms for seating. Mackay called it a “public market”; others a religious assembly hall. Marshall compared it to Buddhist cave temples.
Official Residence
Northeast of the bath, a 70.01 x 23.77 m building with a 10 m courtyard, three verandas, and rooms—likely for high officials or priests (per Mackay).
Harappa
In Montgomery district, Punjab, Pakistan, on the left bank of the Ravi. Charles Masson noted ruins in 1826; Brunton brothers highlighted importance in 1856. Dayaram Sahni excavated in 1921 under Marshall. Artifacts match Egypt and Mesopotamia. Wheeler excavated the western citadel wall in 1946. City spanned 5 km. A 2014 find: a stepwell three times larger than Mohenjo-Daro’s bath.
Two mounds: eastern (city), western (citadel). Citadel was walled, parallelogram-shaped (420 m north-south, 196 m east-west), called Mound AB. Gates north and south; wall 12 m high with towers. North of citadel, Mound F (6 m high) had granary, circular grain-pounding platforms, worker quarters.
Granary
Outside the citadel near the Ravi, two rows of six rooms each (50 x 20 m, total >2,745 sq m).
Eighteen baked-brick circular platforms (3.20 m diameter) on Mound F, vertical bricks, hole for mortar. Ash, wheat, barley, husk found—likely for grain pounding (Wheeler).
Worker Quarters
Two rows of 15 houses: seven north, eight south (17 x 7.5 m each) with rooms and courtyards. No wells like Mohenjo-Daro. Nearby: 14 furnaces, metal crucible.
Other finds: fisherman on pot, shell bull, bronze cart, circular brick platforms for threshing, wheat/barley remnants.
Cemetery
South of residential area, Cemetery R-37 had 57 burials. Bodies north-south, head north. One in wooden coffin. Bronze mirrors in 12, antimony rod, shell spoon, stone blades.
Cemetery H (1934), post-Harappan.
Chanhu-Daro
South of Mohenjo-Daro, discovered by N.G. Majumdar in 1931, excavated by Mackay in 1943. Dated 4000–1700 BCE, lowest layer Harappan. Bead factory found. Copper/bronze tools, molds suggest bead, bone, seal crafts. Items finished and semi-finished—artisans lived here. Scattered items indicate sudden abandonment.
Finds: burnt skull, four-wheeled cart, clay peacock. Lipstick evidence. Brick with dog/cat paw prints. Seal with three crocodiles, two fish. Square seal with two nude women holding flags, peepal leaves between. Only site with curved bricks, no citadel.
Lothal
In Ahmedabad district, Gujarat, near Sargwala on Bhogava River. Excavated 1954–55 by Ranganath Rao. Dated c. 2400 BCE, five layers. Single walled settlement divided into six blocks (117 m east-west, 136 m north-south).
Bazaar and Industrial Area
North: bazaar; south: industrial. Bead, copper, gold workshops. House yielded gold beads, steatite seals, shell/tin bangles, painted clay jar. Water recycled—no waste.
West of acropolis: 11-room bead factory. Northern periphery: cemetery with 20 graves, three joint. Heads north, feet south (one east-west exception).
Dockyard
Key feature: dock (214 x 36 m, 3.3 m deep). 12 m north inlet for ships; south spillway for excess water. Traded with Egypt, Mesopotamia.
Citadel and city in one wall. Famous: dock, distinctive pottery, tools, seals, weights, stone tools. Rice, Persian seals, terracotta horses. Pot with crow-fox painting (Panchatantra link). Alleged fire altar, boat seals, wooden granary. Millstone, ivory/shell scale, compass-like tool. Copper bird, bull, rabbit, dog (dog notable).
Three Persian cylindrical seals. Button seal. Two quern stones (unique). Excavations make Lothal a mini-Harappa or Mohenjo-Daro. Coastal trade hub with West Asia.
Political Life in the Harappan Civilization
The extent and development suggest central authority. The governance type is unclear, but planned towns and strong foreign trade indicate a major political power. Wheeler called it middle-class democratic with religious importance. Administration centered on priests as public representatives. Mackay: representative ruler. Likely a priest-king ruling as god’s representative. Stuart Piggott: democratic, not monarchical. Unchanging governance suggests theocratic. Few weapons indicate peace-loving rulers.
Administratively, cities divided into capital, provincial capitals, trading/residential towns. Mohenjo-Daro and Harappa as twin capitals (Piggott). Some see Kalibangan as third. Governance from fortified citadels housing officials. Planned cities suggest municipal bodies. Grain taxes stored in state granaries. Trade focus suggests merchant-class control.
Social Life in the Indus Valley
Artifacts reveal social life. Building sizes, economic disparities indicate class-based society like others. Elite used precious jewelry; lower classes clay, shell, snail. Large houses near small ones show class division. Rulers, elites, scholars, merchants, artisans, farmers, laborers existed. Worker huts near citadel. Wheeler inferred slavery from barracks, though disputed. Peaceful society. Family as unit; large houses suggest joint families. Abundant female figurines suggest matriarchal, like pre-Aryan cultures.
Food and Clothing
Omnivorous: wheat, barley, dates, sheep, pig, fish meat. Used clay/metal vessels: pots, plates, bowls, trays, glasses, spoons. Wore cotton/wool. Men draped upper garments like shawls. Elite colorful, artistic. Yogi statue in trefoil shawl. Sewing known. Women wore skirt-like lower garments, head veils fanned up.
Cosmetics
Men fond of beards/mustaches. Finds: copper mirrors, ivory combs, razors, kohl sticks, vanity boxes. Women used kohl, lip/nail color, lipstick, hair pins. Both jewelry lovers. Lower class: clay, snail, bone, bronze; elite: gold, silver, ivory, gems. Necklaces, armlets, earrings, rings, bangles (from Kalibangan), girdles, anklets, nose rings—worn by both.
Entertainment
Enjoyed leisure: fishing, hunting, animal fights, dice, board games. Seal with fighting cocks. Bronze dancer, musical instruments on seals indicate dance/music interest. Dice from Harappa/Mohenjo-Daro suggest popular checkers/chess. Children’s toys: clay carts, whistles, rattles.
Burial Practices
Buried or cremated dead. Three methods: full burial (body buried with possessions, like Egyptian pyramids—best at Harappa R-37); fractional (exposed to animals, remains buried); cremation (ashes in vessel, floated in river or buried). Possible river disposal.
Harappa southwest: Cemetery H. Lothal grave: head east-west on side; one with embraced skeletons. Surkotada: oval burials. Ropar: human with dog. Mohenjo-Daro final layer group skeletons, woman’s hair on well steps—Wheeler attributed to external invasion.
Economic Life of the Harappan People
Prosperous economy based on agriculture, animal husbandry, industries, trade. Surplus and commerce enabled urbanization.
Agriculture
Land more fertile then. Alexander’s historian noted Sindh’s fertility. Abundant vegetation, rainfall. Baked-brick walls indicate annual floods. Alluvial soil from Indus tributaries boosted fertility. Sowed in November post-flood, harvested April pre-flood: wheat, barley.
Nine crops identified. Wheat abundant (spelt, club varieties). Barley two types, advanced at Banawali. Rice in Gujarat (Lothal), possibly Rajasthan; millet too. Mustard, dates, sesame, cotton (first here—Greeks called “Sindon”). Fruits/vegetables: peepal, date, neem, lemon, pomegranate, banana.
Tools: stone/bronze. No spade/plowshare, but Kalibangan pre-Harappan plowed fields show plowing. Likely wooden plows; Banawali toy plow. River irrigation. Stone/bronze sickles for harvest. Basket evidence. Surplus in state granaries; clay rat traps. Mortar-pestle for pounding. Lothal: two quern stones.
Animal Husbandry
Key alongside agriculture. Pottery/seals/bones: humped/non-humped bulls, buffaloes, cows, sheep-goats, dogs, donkeys, mules, pigs. Familiar with tigers, elephants, rhinos; no confirmed domestication. S.R. Rao claimed cow/horse evidence at Lothal/Rangpur. Surkotada horse skeleton. Toys/figurines: monkeys, rabbits, deer, cocks, peacocks, parrots, owls.
Crafts and Industries
Foundation of urban life. Seals, sculptures, textiles, pottery, beads highly developed.
Pottery
Potters made bricks, vessels, toys, ornaments. Wheel-made dominant, some handmade. Pots, cups, pitchers, troughs—baked, painted.
Seals and Sculptures
About 2,000 seals, 1,398 from Mohenjo-Daro. Mostly steatite; some faience, agate, chert, clay. Shapes: rectangular, square, round, cubic, circular, cylindrical. Engraved with stamps. Brief inscriptions, unicorn bull, buffalo, tiger, rhino, deer, goat, elephant. Unicorn most common. Lothal/Desalpur copper seals.
Sites yielded stone, metal, terracotta female/male/animal/bird sculptures.
Textile Industry
Cotton cultivation boosted textiles. Cotton/wool fabrics. Alamgirpur spindle with fabric marks. Mohenjo-Daro: red-dyed cotton in silver vessel, cotton thread on copper tools. Imprints at Mohenjo-Daro, Lothal, Rangpur, Kalibangan. Priest statue in trefoil shawl. Spindles, whorls evidence weaving.
Metal Industry
Knew melting, casting, molding. Bronze from 1:9 tin-copper mix. Copper from Khetri (Rajasthan), tin Afghanistan. Smiths important. Abundant copper/bronze tools: pitchers, bowls, pans, axes, saws, fishhooks, swords, knives.
Goldsmiths, jewelers active. Gold/silver from Afghanistan, gems south India. Lothal gold-bead necklace exemplary. Metal statues: Mohenjo-Daro bronze dancer famous. Lothal copper dog artistic. Harappa copper cart, Chanhu-Daro two copper carts. Knew lead.
Pottery Industry
Advanced. Wheel-made, painted red/pink with polish. Special: red/yellow polish. Vessels: jars, bowls, pitchers, troughs. Perforated plates, rat traps.
Bead Industry
Despite Bronze Age, made stone/metal beads, sculptures, jewelry. Factories at Chanhu-Daro, Lothal. Materials: steatite, shell, ivory, snail, clay. Used in toys/jewelry. Abundant weights. Chanhu-Daro made steatite seals, chert weights. Balakot/Lothal shell industry. Ivory tools/cosmetics. Mohenjo-Daro seal boat, Lothal dock suggest shipbuilding. Physicians, masons, fishermen advanced.
Raw materials from Gujarat, Sindh, Rajasthan, south India, Balochistan. Imported from Afghanistan, Soviet Turkmenistan, Mesopotamia. Agate from Gujarat, flint/chert from Rohri/Sukkur (Pakistan), copper from Khetri, gold from Kolar (Karnataka).
Trade and Commerce
Key to prosperity. Internal/external advanced. Cities: production (Mohenjo-Daro, Chanhu-Daro, Harappa, Kot Diji); marketing (Lothal, Surkotada, Balakot). Traded stones, metal flakes internally. Imported raw materials externally. Established colony in northern Afghanistan for trade.
Close ties with Mesopotamia, Egypt, Bahrain, Crete. Ur key Mesopotamian entry. Records mention “Meluha” (Indus), intermediaries “Dilmun” (Bahrain), “Makan” (Makran coast). From Meluha: gold, silver, carnelian, lapis lazuli, ivory, dates, woods (ebony), peacocks. Lothal Persian seals indicate sea trade. S.R. Rao found gorilla/mummy-like artifacts suggesting Egypt ties. Crete seals with mother goddess, lion-man indicate links.
Imports and Exports
Ties with Rajasthan, Afghanistan, Iran, Central Asia. Lapis/silver from Afghanistan; turquoise, tin, silver from Iran. Gold south India (Mysore), copper Rajasthan/Balochistan/Arabia, tin Afghanistan/Iran/Rajasthan, gems (lapis, agate, emerald, coral) Afghanistan/Iran/Maharashtra/Saurashtra/Rajasthan/Kashmir.
Exports to Mesopotamia: cotton textiles, timber, spices, ivory, copper, gold, silver, animals/birds. Ur: Harappan copper vanity box. Imports: beads, metals, medicines, luxuries. Dilmun: gold, silver, lapis, ruby beads, ivory combs, animals/birds, jewelry. Harappan seals at Sumer, Ur, Kish, Lagash, Nippur, Tell Asmar, Tepe Gawra, Umma, Assur. Possibly Harappan merchant colony in Mesopotamia.
No metal coins; barter-based. Seals stamped bundles with sender mark one side, item other. Mostly water routes, some land. Knew wheels; two/four-wheeled bull/buffalo carts (solid wheels). Mohenjo-Daro seal boat, Lothal toy boat suggest masted ships.
Weights: cubic, spherical, cylindrical, conical, barrel. Binary (1,2,4,8…) then multiples of 16 (up to 3200). Like old Indian rupee (16 annas). Mohenjo-Daro shell, Lothal ivory scales.
Intellectual Progress
Script and Writing
Like ancient Mesopotamia, Indus people knew script/writing. Likely wrote on birch bark, perished over time. Excavations yielded inscribed seals, copper plates, pottery. Samples brief; longest 17 characters. Some say Sanskrit-based, others Brahmi. Hunter (1934): unique, similar to Elam/Sumer. Father Heras: Dravidian-based. Russian/Finnish teams agree Dravidian. Mostly pictographic, right-to-left. Boustrophedon style (alternating direction). Despite efforts, undeciphered satisfactorily.
Scientific Progress
Less advanced than Sumer/Egypt, but knew chemistry, metallurgy, medicine, surgery. Made bronze from tin/copper. Knew melting, colors. Baked pottery/bricks at specific temperatures. Town planning shows geometry knowledge. Possibly decimal system. Astronomy/astrology: predicted floods/rain from planets/stars, aiding agriculture.
Medicine
Identified diseases, made remedies. Used asphalt/deer horn ash. Sea foam as medicine. Surgery: trepanation evidence at Kalibangan/Lothal.
Art and Architecture in the Harappan Civilization
Art flourished in various forms. Reflected in cities, buildings, sculptures, seals, beads, pottery engravings.
Architecture
Exemplary in town planning. Great builders. Evidence: urban layout, public/private buildings, walls, baths, roads, drains. Superior to contemporaries. Settlements: central capitals, provincial, commercial, fortified. Grid-pattern planned. Divided: west citadel, east city (Harappa, Mohenjo-Daro, Kalibangan, Lothal, Dholavira). Lothal/Surkotada single wall. Dholavira three parts.
Citadel feature: walls in English bond. Earliest Indian city walls.
Buildings: baked bricks, English bond-like joints. Elite houses with toilets; some windows.
Roads grid-like, right-angled. Mohenjo-Daro main road “Rajpath” (30 ft wide); lanes 5–10 ft. Dustbins/curbs for cleanliness. Mohenjo-Daro roadside platforms for shops.
Drainage superior. Baked-brick drains (30 cm deep, 20–30 cm wide), covered, manholes. Connected, some to soak pits. Corbelled arches. House drains to street mains. Unmatched in ancient world.
Public baths, granaries, changing rooms, stairs, assembly halls showcase advanced technique.
Sculpture
Abundant stone, metal, terracotta sculptures of high quality. Mohenjo-Daro: dozen statues, mostly HR area, small/fragmented. Notable: 19 cm steatite male torso (head to chest). Beardless, hair tied, round head ornament, left shoulder trefoil shawl. Half-closed eyes, gaze on nose tip. Mackay: priest; Marshall: proto-Shiva.
7-inch white stone bearded male head: no mustache, hair bun, inlaid pupils. Less artistic.
11-inch alabaster lower body: transparent garment, shawl on left shoulder, braided hair bun.
Harappa: two fragmented stone. Red sandstone youth torso. Limestone dancing figure—female-like (slim waist, heavy hips). Marshall: proto-Nataraja Shiva, but feminine traits.
Mohenjo-Daro, Harappa, Lothal, Kalibangan: bronze/copper statues. Mohenjo-Daro HR: iconic 4.5-inch bronze nude dancer (lower legs broken). Left arm bangle-covered, holding vessel; right on hip, fewer bangles. Necklace touches breasts, curly hair bun. Large half-closed eyes. Marshall: tribal girl; Piggott compares to Kulli. Artistic grace unparalleled.
Others: Mohenjo-Daro bronze buffalo/sheep; Chanhu-Daro cart; Kalibangan copper bull; Lothal copper bird/bull/rabbit/dog.
Terracotta human/animal/bird/toys: solid humans, hollow others. Some seated/standing males. Chanhu-Daro/Mohenjo-Daro males with thread-like necklace (sacred?). Kalibangan head: sloping forehead, pointed nose, thick lower lip, almond eyes. Lothal: two males, one square beard, sharp nose (Sumerian-like per S.R. Rao).
Female terracottas more impressive. Adorned, slit-method eyes/mouth. Stuck clay for breasts/eyes. Fan-like headdress, round earrings, armlets, necklace, girdle. Chanhu-Daro: turbans, necklace, protruding breasts/belly (pregnancy?). Triangular pubic area, not nude. Some with child (motherhood). Mostly nude, some skirted. Uniform style, ornamentation—likely religious, mother goddess.
Animal/bird terracottas attractive: bull, buffalo, monkey, sheep, goat, dog, elephant, rhino, bear, pig, rabbit, squirrel, snake, crow, cock, pigeon, dove. Bulls most. Red-polished smooth clay. Some steatite/shell/bone. Mohenjo-Daro small-horned bull: fleshy, expressive—artistic mastery. Harappa shell bull with garland. Chanhu-Daro decorated elephant. Banawali plow figure.
Painting
Best in Mohenjo-Daro/Harappa/Chanhu-Daro seals/amulets. Steatite/faience; Lothal/Desalpur copper. Shapes varied; square steatite popular. Engravings: bull, elephant, rhino, tiger. Animals with inscriptions: seals/amulets; animals only: amulets.
Unique scenes: three-headed animal (deer head, unicorn body, sheep head—”composite”). Rudra-Shiva as yogi/Pashupati. Mackay: trident-eyed Shiva seal with six letters.
Swastika on some. Pottery paintings significant. Red/pink with glossy polish. Special: red/yellow. Wheel-made mostly. Chanhu-Daro brush-painted artistic. Animals/birds (bull, deer, antelope, peacock, crane, duck, fish), geometric (triangle, circle, square). Harappa: flying pigeons with stars, half-human/animal backs.
Jewelry
Skilled in jewelry. Hoards: Harappa (armlets, gold/bead necklaces ~500 pieces); Mohenjo-Daro four. Six-strand girdle fine goldwork. Mohenjo-Daro necklace: six gold pea-like bead strands, semi-circles ends—possibly rosary.
Religious Life and Beliefs
Like other ancient civilizations, Indus people were polytheistic and nature worshippers. Evidence of mother goddess, Pashupati Shiva, fertility, animals, water, trees (peepal, neem), serpents.
Worship of Mother Goddess
Abundant adorned female figurines indicate mother goddess worship. Similar in Crete, Asia Minor, Mesopotamia—widespread from Persia to Aegean. Likely earth/fertility goddess. Mohenjo-Daro/Harappa: standing semi-nude females with short skirt, girdle, necklace, fan headdress. Some with smoke marks—incense/oil burned. Venkatesh: “Deepalakshmi.” Some nursing child (motherhood). Balochistan: fierce forms.
Earth as fertility goddess, like Egyptians’ Isis. Seal: inverted nude woman with plant from womb; man with knife, woman raising hands (sacrifice?). Another: woman between peepal branches, tied goat. Marshall: sacrifice to please goddess. Another: seated goddess with priests, peepal on head—fertility/creativity. Earth worship linked to Shakti; origin of Shakti cult. Marshall: no country influenced by goddess worship like India.
Worship of Pashupati
Male deity evidence too. Mohenjo-Daro seal: three-faced nude male in lotus pose on stool. Horned headdress, bangles, necklace. Cheetah/elephant right, rhino/buffalo left, deer below. Marshall/Mackay: Shiva. Nose-gaze: Yogeshwar/Mahayogi. Some equate to Jain first Tirthankara Rishabhdev (bull emblem). Deer: Shantinath; tiger/lion: Mahavira; elephant: Ajitnath.
Shawl-wearing statue linked to yoga. Seal: Shiva in yoga with serpents. Two headless dancing torsos: Nataraja Shiva. Seal: archer—Kirati Shiva. Other seals: three-faced yogi with spread arms, flowered horns; one-faced with vegetation; half-human half-tiger with fruits/leaves. Harappa seals: deity with three-feathered headdress. Thus, male deity like Shiva worshipped alongside mother goddess.
Shiva forms suggest pre-Aryan, tribal, non-Aryan deity. Wild animals (snake, bull) associated. Production deity too—bull companionship. Shiva worship began here. Forms: human, linga, Pashupati—later Shaiva sects.
Worship of Fertility
Worshipped linga (phallus) and yoni (vulva) as fertility—scientific integration. Symbolizes cosmic creation. Abundant stone/faience/shell conical/cylindrical lingas (large limestone, small shell). Rings (yoni) similar. Holes in small ones: amulets. Rigveda condemns phallus worshippers. Linked to Shiva/Shakti.
Tree Worship
Seal engravings: peepal, neem worshipped. Tile: horned animal with sprouting peepal leaves. Marshall: unicorn as peepal deity’s vehicle. Seal: nude deity between peepal branches. Another: deity between peepal, seven women worshipping—peepal deity, seven Matrikas. Others: goat sacrifice to tree deity; animals/serpents guarding trees. Rigveda “Ashvattha” = peepal. Others: neem, date, acacia. Tradition continues in festivals.
Animal Worship
Seals depict animals/birds worshipped: elephant, bull, tiger, buffalo, rhino, crocodile. Many now deity vehicles, but independent then? Horns symbolized power—deities with horned heads.
Humped Bull
Bulls especially: unicorn, humped, dangling dewlap. Shiva-bull association began here—frequent joint depictions. Some imaginary composites: human-headed goat; rhino head, other body/tail. Skull bowls with smoke: incense in animal worship.
Some claim sun/swastika worship. Seal: unicorn before sun-like figure—Vaishnava origin? Lothal pots: serpent figures—milk to snakes/Nag Panchami tradition. Seals: hooded cobra in circles—folk religion.
Yoga highlight: spiritual/scientific fusion. Yogi/terracotta in poses. Marshall: one in Kayotsarga. Yoga evolved here, timeless.
Mantra-tantra belief. Seal symbols possibly mantras. Tile: drumming/dancing—music/dance in worship. Bronze dancer: devadasi. No temples found—Marshall: wooden, perished. Kalibangan/Lothal: suspected fire altars—fire worship/sacrifice.
Indus religion: goddess/male deity worship, animals, trees, symbols. Marshall: many Hindu rituals/superstitions rooted here.
Decline of the Indus Valley Civilization
Lasted until c. 1700 BCE, but declined in final phase—old bricks reused. Scholars disagree on causes: invasions, climate change, ecological imbalance, floods, tectonic shifts, epidemics, economic issues, administrative laxity.
Marshall: administrative weakness. Kosambi: Mohenjo-Daro people burned/killed.
Marshall, Mackay, S.R. Rao: floods. Cities riverine, annual floods. Harappa/Mohenjo-Daro rebuilt multiple times. Mohenjo-Daro: silt layers from floods. Chanhu-Daro: flood evidence. Lothal/Bhagatrav: flood signs.
Rigveda Indra killing Vritra: perhaps Aryans (led by Indra) destroyed protective walls (vrittas), flooding cities.
Floods destroyed riverside cities, but others? Childe, Wheeler, Agarwal, Piggott: Aryan invasions. Wheeler: Rigveda’s “Hariyupiya” = Harappa; Indra “Purandara” destroyed forts. Aryans invaded c. 1500 BCE, destroying/massacring.
Stein, Ghosh: climate change. Higher rainfall, dense forests initially. Deforestation caused drought, low yields, famine. Rivers dried, trade halted.
Sahni, Raikes, Dales, Lambrick: tectonic changes. Land swampy, transport/crops affected; migration led to decline.
Lambrick, Vats: river course changes. Kalibangan: Ghaggar shifts. Water scarcity for drinking/irrigation; water trade disrupted.
Kennedy: skeletons show malaria/epidemics disrupted life.
Some: economic—Mesopotamia trade halted c. 1750 BCE. Urbanism faded, rural traits emerged; large buildings replaced by small with reused bricks.
Dimitriev: physicochemical explosion (“invisible thunder”)—energy/heat ~15,000°C destroyed everything, toxic environment. Melted stones/skeletons support.
Multiple causes likely. Epidemics unlikely with drainage. Evidence of sudden event: looting, arson at Mohenjo-Daro. Room with 14 skeletons, alley with women/children—flood/invasion/fire/epidemic.
Continuity and Legacy
Debated if vanished or continued. B.B. Lal, Ghosh, R.S. Sharma: no link to later Indian civilization. Others: persisted, influenced Indian culture.
Post-decline: new cultures—Jhukar (Sindh), Cemetery H (Punjab), copper-hoard in southeast Rajasthan/Maharashtra/Malwa/Ganga-Yamuna. New elements in Jhukar, Jhangar, Banas, but Harappan traits persist. Mackay: Jhukar seals influenced by Indus.
Kathiawar/Kutch: continuity, new culture from Harappan elements. Rangpur glossy red ware in Ahar (Rajasthan), Navdatoli (Malwa). Harappan culture lingered till historical era.
Ganga-Yamuna ochre-colored pottery influenced by Harappan (S.R. Rao: late/lower Harappan). Sites: Bargaon, Ambkheri, Ahichhatra, Hastinapur, Atranjikhera, Kaushambi.
Linked to copper-hoard cultures. Thus, Harappan survived in limited form.
Significance of the Indus Valley Civilization
Though vanished, profoundly influenced later Indian civilization/culture. Social, economic, religious, artistic roots in Harappan.
Some trace varna system to Harappan classes: scholars/warriors/merchants/laborers to Brahmin/Kshatriya/Vaishya/Shudra.
Economy: organized agriculture, husbandry, industries, trade. Rice/cotton production, bullock carts originated here. Initiated external contacts.
Religious: Marshall—Hinduism’s main form in Indus religion. Nature worship integral. Animal reverence, Shakti forms, Shiva worship, sun/swastika, magic/rituals, sacrifices persist.
Mother goddess: earth/fertility—Shakta roots. Male deity: proto-Shiva. Yogi pose influenced Buddha statues. Linga linked to Shiva. Kayotsarga: Jain yoga origin. Bull: Shiva’s Nandi/Jain Rishabhanath emblem—Jain roots.
Tree worship: peepal sacred. Hindu/Buddhist reverence; Buddha’s enlightenment under it. Stupas depict it. Peepal: abode of 33 crore deities.
Nag Panchami: from serpent figures.
Water sanctity: communal baths like Hindu rituals. Incense/lamps: Harappan gift.
Idol worship: deities/animals/birds. Later Hindu core.
Art: fort/wall inspiration. Pillared hall: Mauryan prototype. Sculpture began here—influenced later. Ashoka’s Lauriya-Nandangarh bull: Harappan bull imitation.
Urbanism not lasting—India rural centuries after—but food, lifestyle, clothing, jewelry persisted. Pottery, metalwork, writing, sculpture, painting, dance/music developed further.
Harappan influence evident in all Indian life aspects.
