Mesopotamian Civilization: The Cradle of Human Progress
The history of human civilization after the Stone Age witnessed the successive arrival of the Copper Age and Bronze Age. Stone Age civilizations were limited to forests, caves, oases, lake shores, and to some extent river valleys. However, Copper and Bronze Age civilizations became concentrated only in river valleys. Their spread extended from Egypt and the eastern Mediterranean region to the Indus River Valley in India.
The fertile and prosperous plains of the Tigris-Euphrates, Nile, and Indus rivers became the primary centers of human civilization development. The facilities available in these river valleys were contemporary, yet humans could not utilize them simultaneously. Therefore, it cannot yet be said with certainty where civilization first emerged and developed.
At one time, scholars like Woolley, Hall, Childe, Marshall, etc., claimed the Harappan civilization to be the oldest, but in light of the dates obtained from recent excavations and evidence of the Indus Valley Civilization, the views of these scholars no longer appear justified.
Regarding the antiquity of the Nile Valley and Tigris-Euphrates Valley civilizations, archaeologists such as Will Durant, Frankfort, Maspero, etc., support the view that the Sumerian civilization that developed in the Tigris-Euphrates valley was the oldest. According to these scholars, knowledge of metal, script, wheel, seals, and wheeled vehicles first reached the Sumerians. Only afterward did the Egyptians become familiar with them.
Excavations reveal that many cultural elements of Sumerian civilization were adopted in the early stages of Egyptian civilization but were later forgotten for some reasons. Some archaeologists even claim that the pre-dynastic Egyptian script was influenced by Sumerian cuneiform.
However, scholars like Breasted, Smith, etc., accept the antiquity of the Nile Valley civilization. Their argument is that a united state was established in the Nile Valley from a very early period, whereas even at the beginning of the historical period in Sumeria, numerous city-states existed.
Extent of Mesopotamian Civilization
Meaning of Mesopotamia
Among the world’s civilizations, Mesopotamian civilization holds a significant place. The word “Mesopotamia” is derived from two Greek words: “meso” (middle) and “potamia” (river), meaning the land between two rivers (Doab). In ancient times, present-day Iraq, located north of the Persian Gulf in West Asia, was called Mesopotamia.
Confluence of Civilizations
The Mesopotamian region is surrounded by the Black Sea in the north, the Arabian Sea in the south, the Caspian Sea and Iranian plateau in the east, and the Mediterranean Sea and Black Sea in the west.
The nearby seas helped Mesopotamia stay in contact with neighboring countries, enabling its civilizations to interact with Minoan, Indus Valley, and Chinese civilizations. Thus, southwest Asia can be called the confluence of contemporary civilizations.
Archaeologist Gordon Childe acknowledged that Mesopotamia was like a vast lake that gave rise to countless streams. Will Durant also believed that modern American and European civilizations received the achievements of this region’s civilization through Crete, Rome, and modern Greece.
Geographical Extent
Geographically, southwest Asia can primarily be divided into three parts: the northern mountainous region, the central fertile crescent-shaped area, and the vast southern (Arabian) desert. Over time, various races turned these three regions into their playgrounds and developed civilizations.
The northern mountainous region was always inhabited by cruel, ruthless, and nomadic barbarian tribes. The warlike Hittites of Asia Minor lived here. A tribe in the mountainous region of Armenia constantly invaded Assyria. The Medes ended Assyria, and the Kassites ended Babylonia.
Below the mountainous region lies a fertile belt. Due to its fertility, it is called the “Fertile Crescent.” This fertile and prosperous region is enriched by the Tigris-Euphrates and their tributaries. These two rivers provided Iraq with the same facilities that the Nile provided Egypt. If the Nile was a boon for Egypt, the Tigris-Euphrates rivers were equally a boon for this region. Both rivers originate from the Armenian mountains.
Flowing southward, they irrigate a vast area and eventually empty into the Persian Gulf. The plains formed by both rivers become temporarily unusable every year due to floods. Initially, this unusability lasted for many days, but once humans gained control over nature through intelligence and skill, this region became highly productive, and their entire economic system came to depend on it.
Near the Fertile Crescent lies a large desert region similar in shape to the crescent. Being arid, it was unsuitable for agriculture. Therefore, its inhabitants primarily lived by looting and constantly plundered the residents of the neighboring Fertile Crescent.
Although both groups had Semitic elements racially, one had a settled lifestyle while the other was nomadic. Thus, the Tigris-Euphrates valley played a crucial role in determining lifestyle and cultural advancement.
In the Tigris-Euphrates valley of Mesopotamia, four civilizations developed sequentially: Sumerian, Babylonian, Assyrian, and Chaldean. Among their creators, the Sumerians, Babylonians, and Chaldeans created peaceful cultures, whereas the Assyrians emphasized military elements and succeeded in protecting Mesopotamian culture. A popular saying about these civilizations is that the Sumerians gave birth to civilization, the Babylonians raised it to its peak, and the Assyrians preserved it.
In other words, the civilization that emerged from the combination of Sumerian, Babylonian, Assyrian, and Chaldean civilizations is collectively called “Mesopotamian Civilization.”
Sumerian Civilization
In ancient times, the southern part of the Mesopotamian region was called Sumer, the main center of this civilization. It is the southern part of the Tigris-Euphrates valley. The northeastern part of Sumer was called Babul (Babylon) and Akkad, while the higher land in the north was called Assyria.
Over time, Sumerian people who came from the northern mountainous regions settled in Mesopotamia and developed a highly prosperous civilization known as the Sumerian civilization.
The Sumerians originally established city-states. Famous states included Eridu, Erech, Ur, Lagash, Nippur, Isin, Larsa, Kish, etc. Eridu, Erech, and Ur were west of the Euphrates; Nippur, Isin, and Larsa were east; Kish and Babylon were nearby in the northeast; and Lagash was between the two rivers. Sargon I was the founder of this civilization. Around 3000 BCE, the Sumerians invented cuneiform script, considered the oldest script.
The Sumerians knew how to make bronze by mixing tin and copper. They were the first inventors of arches, domes, and columns in architecture. Additionally, the earliest instances of slavery, despotism, religious fanaticism, ruthless imperialistic wars, social discrimination, and exploitation also appeared in Sumeria. According to Will Durant, the earliest ancient irrigation system, credit system, writing, justice system, schools, libraries, ancient temples, statues, arches, and domes were unprecedented gifts of Sumeria.
Babylonian Civilization
Around 2100 BCE, after the decline of Sumerian civilization, western Semites laid the foundation of a new civilization in Babul or Babylon. Hence, it is called Babylonian civilization.
The creators of Babylonian culture are considered very close to Sumerian culture, so many similarities are found between the two. The political and cultural centers of this civilization were states like Isin, Larsa, Babylonia, Mari, and Assur.
The most prominent ruler of Babylon was Hammurabi, who stopped wars among various city-states, implemented uniform laws throughout the country, and established a strong state. Because of his legal code, he is regarded as the world’s first lawgiver. Here, ziggurats (temples) were considered state property.
Thus, Babylonian civilization and culture had reached maturity in form and beauty. Along with political ups and downs, significant cultural developments occurred. This culture continued to illuminate other cultures with its dignity. Some of their inventions and research were truly remarkable. Priests held an important place in religion. The influence of their ziggurats can be seen in Muslim mosques.
In the field of law, the ancient world is as indebted to Hammurabi’s code as the modern world is to Roman law. Although the Babylonians did not make much progress in society, economy, trade, art-literature, science, etc., they succeeded to some extent in refining the fundamental cultural elements of Sumerian civilization.
Assyrian Civilization
After Hammurabi’s death, around 1100 BCE, the Assyrians attacked Babylon and established almost complete control. They founded their empire over a vast area of Mesopotamia. The center of Assyrian political and cultural activities was the city of Assur, hence they are called Assyrians. Major centers of their civilization were Assur, Arbela, Calah, and Nineveh. The Assyrian capital Nineveh was located on the banks of the Tigris.
The Assyrians adopted Babylonian cultural elements, made possible changes and additions, and commendably preserved them. Although Assyrian civilization was an imitation of Babylonian civilization, it was conscious imitation, not blind. With new experiences and inventions in various fields of life, the Assyrians influenced the later world. They were the first in history to turn the possibility of establishing a vast empire through military power into reality. The oldest Asian architecture reached its perfection during the Assyrian period, becoming an inspiration for Persians and Greeks.
Chaldean Renaissance
Babylonian civilization was affected by growing Assyrian power, but around 612 BCE, a Semitic branch called the Chaldeans succeeded in finally freeing it. Since the renaissance of Babylonian civilization was carried out by the Chaldean branch of the Semitic race, this Neo-Babylonian civilization is known as the Chaldean Renaissance.
The Chaldeans built their civilization but gradually weakened due to lack of strong rulers. Finally, in 539 BCE, with the conquest of Persian Cyrus, Mesopotamian civilization came to an end.
Features of Mesopotamian Civilization
Hammurabi’s Code of Laws
Babylonian emperor Hammurabi created a code of laws for his subjects – the oldest known legal code. The emperor had it engraved on an 8-foot-high stone stele. Hammurabi’s principle of punishment was “an eye for an eye.”
Social Life
In Mesopotamian civilization, the king was considered the representative of gods on earth. After the king and royal family, priests held the second position; they were probably rulers before the monarchy. The middle class consisted of merchants, landlords, and shopkeepers. Slaves were at the bottom. Due to continuous wars, the army held an important place in society.
Agriculture and Animal Husbandry
The main occupation of Mesopotamian people was agriculture. Farmers ploughed land with ploughs and sowed seeds using seed drills. For irrigation, floodwater was channeled through canals and stored in large reservoirs. Oxen were used for ploughing, and animal breeding began for breed improvement. The potter’s wheel was first used in this civilization.
Trade and Industry
Mesopotamian civilization was essentially a commercial civilization. Temples were not only religious places but also commercial centers. The earliest banking system developed here. Mesopotamia had trade relations with the Indus Valley Civilization of India.
Religious Beliefs
Mesopotamians believed in many gods and goddesses. Each city had its own patron deity. “Ziggurat” means “mountain of heaven.” The ziggurat at Ur was built of bricks on an artificial hill. Ur’s ziggurat had three stories and was more than 20 meters high. Mesopotamians focused on practical problems of this world rather than the afterlife. Their priests were also engaged in business.
Science and Knowledge
Mesopotamian achievements in science were significant. They made considerable progress in astronomy, accurately determining sunrise, sunset, moonrise, and moonset times. They divided the day and night into 24 hours. The division of minutes into 60 seconds and hours into 60 minutes originated here. They also created the lunar calendar.
They began dividing the circle into 360 degrees in geometry. Thus, Mesopotamian inhabitants were familiar with advanced traditions of science and mathematics. The Pythagorean theorem is also a contribution of Mesopotamian civilization.
Architecture
The arch was an important discovery in architecture. Mesopotamian artists invented the arch. The Hanging Gardens, counted among the Seven Wonders of the World, were built by Nebuchadnezzar for his Median queen.
Cuneiform Script
The first script of Mesopotamia developed in Sumer. Sumerian merchants created wedge-like symbols to keep accounts, developing the art of writing called cuneiform. British officer Henry Rawlinson was the first to decipher cuneiform.
Relations with Indus Valley Civilization
Historical evidence proves that Mesopotamia and the Indus Valley Civilization were contemporary and had deep trade relations via sea routes between Sumer, Babylon, and the Indus region. Therefore, many similarities are found between the two.
Lifestyle and traditions in Mesopotamia were quite similar to the Indus Valley Civilization. People of both civilizations were theistic and idol-worshippers. Temples, deity statues, and worship traditions existed in society.
Both civilizations had twelve months, and time calculation was based on lunar movement. Intercalary months, eighth and full-moon days were important dates.
Items likely exported from the Indus to Mesopotamia included cotton textiles, timber, spices, ivory, and animals/birds. Nearly a dozen Indus seals have been found in Mesopotamian cities like Ur, Kish, Lagash, Nippur, Tell Asmar, Tepe Gawra, Hama, etc.
Notable items imported from Mesopotamia to Indus cities include a greenish chlorite stone fragment with mat-like design found at Mohenjo-daro.
Documentary evidence shows gold, silver, lapis lazuli, ruby beads, ivory combs, animals/birds, and jewellery were imported from Dilmun. Dilmun is identified with Bahrain Island in the Persian Gulf. Dilmun served as an intermediary port between Harappan trade centers and Mesopotamia.
Inscriptions and seals related to the Indus Civilization found in Mesopotamia mention “Meluha.” Ur was an important port for entry into Mesopotamia. Persian Gulf seals have been found at Lothal in India. Ships from Egypt and Mesopotamia used to visit this port. They established a commercial colony in northern Afghanistan to facilitate trade with Central Asia.
There is no doubt that the economic inequality in the urban population of the Harappan community was almost like class division. Wheeler estimates that slave trade also took place between Harappan and Mesopotamian inhabitants.
