The Life of Timur
Timur, also known as Taimur Lang or Timur (1336–1405 CE), was a cruel and ambitious military ruler of the 14th century who established the great Timurid dynasty. Rising from Central Asia, he became the lord of a vast empire, but his conquests were marked by evident cruelty and destruction. The famous 18th-century historian Edward Gibbon wrote about Timur that ‘in the countries where Timur hoisted his flag of victory, false stories were spread, knowingly or unknowingly, about Timur’s birth, his character, personality, and even his name.’ Gibbon further stated that ‘but in reality, he was a warrior who, born in a peasant family, sat on the throne of Asia. Disability did not affect his attitude or courage. He even conquered his weaknesses.’
In truth, Timur’s physical disability never became an obstacle in his path. Even his staunch critics acknowledge that Timur was filled to the brim with strength and courage. He continued to achieve victories on the battlefield for 35 years. Overcoming his physical weaknesses to become a world conqueror is a rare example in history. His autobiography ‘Tuzuk-e-Timuri’ and contemporary sources like Ibn Arabshah and Clavijo’s accounts confirm this. Below, his life, conquests, and invasion of India are described in detail in pure form, based on historical facts.
Early Life of Timur
Amir Timur was born on April 8, 1336 CE, in the Transoxiana region at a place called Kesh (or ‘Shahr-e-Sabz’). At birth, he was named Timur, which means ‘iron’ in Persian, symbolizing his firm resolve. His father, Amir Turghai, was the chief of the Barlas Turks’ Gurgan or Chagatai branch. Timur was of Turkish origin but claimed descent from Genghis Khan to strengthen his legitimacy.
In his early life, Timur received military education, making him proficient in the art of war. His father had converted to Islam, so Timur became a staunch follower of Islam. Zahiruddin Babur, the founder of the Mughal Empire in India, was a descendant of this same Timur, reflecting the long-term legacy of his lineage.
Timur conquered the hardships of life. According to the 15th-century Syrian historian Ibn Arabshah, Timur was injured by a shepherd’s arrow while stealing sheep. According to the Spanish ambassador Clavijo’s account, his right leg was wounded in a conflict with horsemen from Sistan, causing him to limp for life. Later, his right hand was also injured. In fact, in 1363 CE, while working as a mercenary in Khorasan, his right limbs became disabled. His right leg was shorter than the left, and he had to drag it while walking. For this reason, in Persian, he was called ‘Timur-e-Lang’ (Lame Timur), which later distorted into ‘Taimur Lang’. This disability could not stop his courage; instead, he made it a symbol of his strength.
Timur’s Seizure of Samarkand and Empire Expansion
Timur was a talented and ambitious individual. Like Genghis Khan, he harbored the desire for world conquest. In 1369 CE, after the death of Samarkand’s Mongol ruler, he seized the city and made it his capital. He adopted Genghis Khan’s military system—organizing the army into units of ten soldiers, emphasizing cavalry, and implementing a cruel punishment system.
His conquest journey began in 1370 CE. Between 1380-1387 CE, he conquered Khorasan, Sistan, Afghanistan, Persia, Azerbaijan, Kurdistan, and Mesopotamia. His army included Turkish, Mongol, and Persian soldiers. These victories expanded his empire from Western Asia to Central Asia. He declared himself the ‘protector of Islam,’ but his cruelty was notorious—mass killings in conquered cities and building minarets of heads were his specialties.
Purpose of the Invasion of India
By the 1390s, Timur’s eyes fell on India. His amirs and sardars hesitated to attack distant India, but Timur named it ‘propagation of Islam’ and ‘jihad against infidels.’ In his autobiography ‘Tuzuk-e-Timuri,’ he writes: ‘My purpose in attacking Hindustan is to wage a religious war against the infidel Hindus, so that the army of Islam obtains the wealth and valuable items of the Hindus.’
The real objective was to loot wealth. Stories of India’s prosperity (diamonds, jewels, gold) attracted him. The internal weakness of the Delhi Sultanate—the decline of the Tughlaq dynasty—gave him the opportunity. Destruction of idol worship was just an excuse; in reality, it was ambition for loot and expansion.
Condition of the Delhi Sultanate
At the time of the invasion (1398 CE), the Delhi Sultanate was on the verge of disintegration. After the death of Firoz Shah Tughlaq (1388 CE), succession wars broke out. From 1388-1394 CE, three weak sultans (Ghiyasuddin Tughlaq II, Abu Bakr, Nasiruddin Muhammad) came and went. Self-interest of sardars spread anarchy. Sultan Nasiruddin Mahmud Shah (1394-1413 CE) was a nominal ruler, a puppet of Amir Mallu Iqbal Khan. Provinces were becoming independent—Jaunpur, Gujarat, Malwa, etc. Hindu Rajput and Jat sardars were rebelling. This weakness was an invitation to Timur.
Timur’s Invasion of India
Timur (Taimur Lang)’s invasion of India (1398-1399 CE) was one of the most destructive events in medieval Indian history. This invasion proved to completely end the Tughlaq dynasty of the Delhi Sultanate. The cruelty of Timur’s army, mass killings, plunder, and religious frenzy bloodied North India. The campaign lasted about 6 months, in which Timur devastated areas from Sindh to Delhi and, on the return, up to the foothills of the Himalayas. Historical sources like Timur’s autobiography ‘Tuzuk-e-Timuri’ (or Malfuzat-e-Timuri), Sharafuddin Yazdi’s ‘Zafarnama’, Nizamuddin Ahmad’s ‘Tabakat-e-Akbari’, and contemporary travelers’ accounts confirm its horror. Timur himself proudly described these events in his biography, calling it the ‘victory of Islam.’
Preparation for the Invasion and Advance Army’s Departure (Early 1398 CE)
Timur had planned the invasion of India in 1397 CE itself, when his Central Asian conquests were complete. His main objective was to loot Delhi’s famous wealth, stories of which had reached Central Asia. Using the excuse of religious jihad, he motivated his army.
Grandson Pir Muhammad’s Advance Detachment: In early 1398 CE, Timur sent his grandson Pir Muhammad Jahangir with an advance army of 50,000 soldiers to India. This detachment entered India via Kabul, crossing the Indus River. Pir Muhammad first captured Uch (a fort in Sindh), where the local governor offered minimal resistance. Then, he besieged Multan. Multan was a strategic city, center of trade routes. The siege lasted 6 months—from March to September 1398 CE. The city’s residents, tormented by starvation and attacks, surrendered. Pir looted the city, destroyed temples except mosques, and enslaved thousands. This victory paved the way for Timur, as it opened the door to Punjab. Timur’s main army advanced inspired by this success. In this phase, Timur’s strategy was clear: destabilize the area with the advance detachment and prepare a base for the main army.
Arrival of Timur’s Main Army and Initial Victories (April-September 1398 CE)
Departure from Samarkand: In April 1398 CE, Timur himself set out from Samarkand. His army was about 90,000-100,000 soldiers, including Turkish cavalry, Mongol archers, and Persian gunners. The army was well-organized—based on Genghis Khan’s decimal system (units of 10, 100, 1000). Timur crossed Afghanistan via Kabul and Ghazni. In September 1398 CE, he crossed the Indus River, then the Jhelum and Ravi rivers. These rivers were in flood season, but Timur’s engineering skills (building bridges) allowed the army to cross safely. During this, he collected tribute from or subdued local tribes (Jats and Afghans).
Attack on Tulamba (October 13, 1398 CE): Tulamba (a town in Punjab), 70 miles northeast of Multan, was the first major target. Timur arrived and halted there. The city’s residents were mainly Hindu and Muslim traders. Timur ordered that all be killed or enslaved. The city was looted, houses burned, and thousands killed. In ‘Tuzuk-e-Timuri,’ Timur writes that ‘the land was colored with the blood of infidels.’ From here, he took 5,000 captives, including women and children. This attack was psychological—to spread terror and force future cities to surrender.
Massacre in Bhatner, Saraswati, and Intermediate Areas (October-November 1398 CE)
Bhatner (Hisar-e-Firoza area): After conquering Dipalpur, Timur reached Bhatner. The Rajput ruler Dulchand Rathore resisted valiantly. Rajputs rained arrows and stones from the fort walls. After two days of fighting, the Rajputs surrendered, hoping Timur would show mercy. But Timur deceived them—attacked immediately after surrender. In ‘Tuzuk-e-Timuri,’ he proudly writes: ‘In a short time, all people in the fort were put to the sword. In an hour, 10,000 (ten thousand) heads were cut. The sword of Islam bathed in the blood of infidels. Their belongings, treasures, and grain were looted. Houses were set on fire and reduced to ashes.’ Minarets of heads were built, his cruel tradition. Women became slaves, property distributed in the army.
Saraswati (Sirsa area): After Bhatner, attack on Saraswati. It was an ancient Hindu pilgrimage site with temples and Brahmin settlements. Timur declared all Hindus ‘infidels’ and massacred them. Temples destroyed, idols smashed. According to Yazdi’s ‘Zafarnama,’ ‘All infidel Hindus were slaughtered. Their women, children, and property became ours.’ Thousands killed, city burned. This was an example of religious frenzy, where Timur justified loot in the name of jihad.
Jat Areas and Other Plunder: Advancing toward Delhi, entered Jat regions (Sirsa, Kaithal). Jats were farmer-warriors but unorganized. Timur ordered: ‘Kill whoever you find.’ Villages burned, men killed, women-children captured. Temples and markets in Kaithal destroyed. In this phase, about 50,000 people were killed, as per contemporary estimates.
Attack on Delhi and Massacre (December 1398 CE)
Approach Near Delhi and Massacre of Captives: Reached near Delhi in the first week of December. The army had captured 100,000 Hindu captives en route (mainly rural). Timur ordered: ‘Release Muslim captives, kill the rest.’ Mass killing in one day—heads cut, bodies thrown into rivers. This was to maintain the army’s ‘purity,’ as Timur feared captives might revolt.
Battle of Panipat (December 17, 1398 CE): Sultan Nasiruddin Mahmud Shah gathered an army with Wazir Mallu Iqbal Khan—40,000 infantry, 10,000 cavalry, and 120 war elephants. Clash at Panipat field. Tughlaq elephants panicked from Timur’s cavalry and arrow showers, causing chaos. Tughlaq army badly defeated; Sultan fled to Gujarat, Mallu Iqbal hid in Baran. Timur’s victory due to superior cavalry and strategy (flank attacks).
Entry into Delhi and Plunder (From December 18, 1398 CE): Entered with pomp on December 18. The city had millions of refugees. Timur permitted plunder—massacre lasted 5 days. Yazdi writes in ‘Zafarnama’: ‘Heads of Hindus were cut and piled high, their bodies left for wild animals and birds.’ Houses set on fire, rapes, killings. Estimated 100,000-200,000 killed. Loot included diamonds (rumors like Kohinoor), pearls, gold, silk, jewels. Artisans (masons, goldsmiths) and beautiful women enslaved—these later built structures in Samarkand. Plague spread, city deserted for two months. Badauni writes: ‘For two months, not even a bird flapped its wings.’ Timur stayed 15 days, departed on January 1, 1399 CE.
Destruction on the Return Path (January-March 1399 CE)
Meerut and Haridwar: January 9, raid on Meerut—city looted, killings. In Haridwar area, defeated two Hindu armies (local kings), massacre on Ganga banks. Temples destroyed, pilgrims killed.
Kangra and Jammu: January 16, conquered Kangra (Shivalik hills), looted. Ascent on Jammu—hill king resisted but lost. Countless killings, property looted.
Return and Appointment: Appointed Khizr Khan (a local Muslim sardar) as governor of Multan, Lahore, and Dipalpur. Crossed Indus on March 19, 1399 CE, returned to Samarkand. Total loot: Billions in wealth, over 100,000 captives.
This invasion proved the final shroud for the Tughlaq dynasty—Delhi’s power became nominal, provinces independent. Economic destruction (trade halted, population decline) and social trauma (religious tensions) lasted long. Timur did not stay in India, but his cruelty made him a legend in Central Asia.
Timur’s Conquests After the Invasion and His Death
After returning to Samarkand from India, Timur continued his conquest journey. He never rested and remained filled with ambition to seize new territories. His army was now stronger, as loot from India (wealth, horses, artisans, and slaves) increased his resources. Contemporary sources like ‘Zafarnama’ and Timur’s biography describe the events of this period.
1400 CE Invasion of Anatolia: Immediately after returning from India, Timur turned west. In 1400 CE, he invaded Anatolia (part of modern Turkey). This area was then under Bayezid I of the Ottoman Empire. Timur captured cities like Aleppo, Damascus, and Baghdad. In Damascus, he carried out horrific massacre—thousands of civilians killed, city looted and burned. In this campaign, he deposed the Islamic Caliph in Cairo and declared himself protector of Islam. Anatolia conquest made him supreme in the Middle East, but its cruelty (like minarets of heads) further defamed him.
1402 CE Battle of Angora: One of Timur’s most prominent victories. On July 20, 1402 CE, at the field of Angora (modern Ankara) in Anatolia, clash with Ottoman Sultan Bayezid I (called ‘Bayezid Yildirim’ or Lightning). Bayezid’s army was large (about 100,000 soldiers), but Timur’s strategy was superior. He captured water sources to thirst the Ottoman army, attacked with cavalry charges, and won over some of Bayezid’s allies. Ottoman army defeated; Bayezid captured and later died (suicide or in captivity per some sources). This victory weakened the Ottoman Empire, which extended to Europe. He also conquered cities like Smyrna (Izmir) and defeated Christian powers. Angora battle made Timur master from Asia to Europe’s border.
Death (1405 CE): Under his final ambitious plan, Timur prepared to invade China. Ming dynasty China was powerful then, and Timur wanted to complete Genghis Khan’s legacy by conquering it. In November 1404 CE, he set out from Samarkand with a huge army (200,000 soldiers). In February 1405 CE, he reached Otrar (modern Kazakhstan). Harsh winter, illness, and fatigue made him unwell. On February 18, 1405 CE, at age 68, he died. Cause of death said to be fever and excessive alcohol. His body was brought to Samarkand and buried in the Gur-e-Amir mausoleum. At death, his empire extended from Iran to India’s border but divided among his sons and grandsons.
After Timur’s death, his empire did not last long, but it gave birth to the Timurid Renaissance, where art and architecture flourished.
Impact of Timur’s Invasion
Timur Lang’s invasion of India (1398-1399 CE) proved fatal for the Delhi Sultanate. It not only completed the disintegration of the Tughlaq dynasty but destabilized North India’s political, economic, and social structure for years. Historical sources like ‘Tarikh-e-Mubarakshahi’ and ‘Tabakat-e-Akbari’ describe this impact. Main effects were as follows:
Complete Disintegration of Tughlaq Empire: The invasion ended Delhi’s central authority. Tughlaq dynasty was already weak, but Timur’s loot and massacre gave it the final blow. Delhi’s population and economy destroyed—millions killed, city deserted, trade stopped. Provinces declared independence, like Jaunpur (Sharqi dynasty), Gujarat, Malwa, and Bengal already separated.
Political Instability and Succession Struggles: After Timur left, anarchy spread in Delhi. Nasrat Shah (Tughlaq claimant), hiding in Doab, tried to capture Delhi in 1399 CE. But Wazir Mallu Iqbal Khan defeated and expelled him. Mallu Iqbal captured Firozabad. In 1401 CE, Sultan Nasiruddin Mahmud Shah returned from Dhar (or Gujarat) and invited Mallu, but conflict continued. Mallu Iqbal held real power, sultan nominal.
Death of Mallu Iqbal and Final Struggles: On November 12, 1405 CE (1404 CE in some sources), Mallu Iqbal died in war with Khizr Khan (Timur-appointed governor of Multan). Khizr Khan claimed Delhi. Weak Sultan Mahmud Shah ruled nominally for about 20 years (1394-1413 CE), as amirs’ puppet. In February 1413 CE (or 1414 CE), his death in Kaithal ended the Tughlaq dynasty.
Broader Impacts:
Economic: Delhi’s treasury empty, agriculture and trade ruined. Looted wealth reached Samarkand, where Timur built grand mosques and palaces.
Social and Religious: Hindu-Muslim tensions increased, temples destroyed causing cultural loss. Epidemics and famines led to loss of life.
Political Changes: After Tughlaqs, Sayyid dynasty rose (established by Khizr Khan in 1414 CE), influenced by Timur’s legacy. This started the era of regional states in India, lasting until Mughal period.
Overall, Timur’s invasion was a destructive storm that confined the Delhi Sultanate to history’s pages and promoted decentralization of power in India.
