The Mesolithic period, derived from the Greek words “mesos” (middle) and “lithos” (stone), represents a transitional archaeological phase between the Upper Paleolithic and Neolithic eras. It is also known as the Epipaleolithic period, particularly in regions outside northern Europe, such as the Levant and Caucasus. The timeline of the Mesolithic varies across Eurasia; in Europe, it spans approximately 15,000 to 5,000 BCE, while in the Middle East (Near Eastern Epipaleolithic), it dates from 20,000 to 10,000 BCE. This era marked the final stage of hunter-gatherer societies following the Last Glacial Maximum, just before the Neolithic Revolution. The term is less commonly used in the Far East, and its presence is minimal beyond Eurasia and North Africa.
Discovery of the Mesolithic culture in India
Mesolithic cultures exhibited regional diversity but generally featured a decline in large-game communal hunting, a broad-spectrum hunter-gatherer lifestyle, and the development of small, refined stone tools (microliths) in contrast to the heavy tools of the Paleolithic. In some areas, the early use of pottery and textiles appears, though agricultural indicators symbolize the transition to the Neolithic. More permanent settlements were found near water sources with abundant food, but societies remained simple, with uncomplicated burial practices. Elaborate mounds are a Neolithic hallmark.
In India, the Mesolithic period was first discovered in 1867 CE by C. L. Carlyle during surveys in the Vindhya region, where microliths made from jasper, chert, or red stone were found, replacing quartzite. Carbon dating places this culture between 10,000 BCE to 2,000 BCE. During this time, temperature changes led to warmer and drier climates, altering plants and animals and impacting human life. Lifestyle shifts prompted changes to tool-making techniques. Although humans remained hunters and gatherers, they shifted from large animals to smaller ones. Tool production incorporated bone alongside stone, reflecting major lifestyle changes from the Paleolithic to the Mesolithic. Humans began using handles on tools and weapons. While fire and agriculture were not yet known, they had domesticated dogs. The introduction of pottery-making is a key feature of the late Mesolithic phase.
Key Mesolithic sites in India include Bagor in Rajasthan, Langhnaj in Gujarat, Sarai Nahar Rai, Chopani Mando, Mahagara, and Damdama in Uttar Pradesh, and Bhimbetka and Adamgarh in Madhya Pradesh.
Mesolithic Tools and Technological Expansion
As the climate warmed, animals migrated from old habitats to riverbanks in search of water. Consequently, hunting large animals became difficult, leading humans to target smaller game. Tools evolved into smaller sizes, known as microliths, ranging from 1 cm to 8 cm These included blades, cores, burrins, triangular arrowheads, crescents, and some geometric shapes. Microliths indicate significant technological advancements in composite tools, where handles of bone, wood, or bamboo were attached, making them more convenient and effective. Primary tools included crescents and trapezoids. Later developments in copper and iron arrows, hooks, and sickles originated here, though their emergence began in the late Paleolithic and reached maturity in the Mesolithic.
Globally, humans produced microliths during this period, sometimes as small as half an inch, crafted using pressure techniques. Socially, humans remained nomadic, but tool changes clearly reflect lifestyle shifts.
Mesolithic sites in Peninsular India
In Rajasthan’s Panchpadrada River valley and the Sajjat region, microliths have been found in abundance. Tilwara and Bagor are important Mesolithic sites here, with Bagor—excavated by archaeologist V.N. Misra in 1968-70 CE—being India’s largest Mesolithic site, located near the Kothari River. Smaller excavations occur in Kashmir’s mountain ranges, Madhya Pradesh, and Uttar Pradesh.
Additionally, non-geometric and later geometric tools were first found at Morhana Pahar, Baghaikhor, Bhainsor, and Lekhahia (near Mirzapur). Red ochre pottery, poorly fired, was also discovered. Later microliths included crescents, triangles, blades, burrs, scrapers, borers, and trapezoids. In northern and central Gujarat, sites like Langhnaj and Akhaj yielded quartzite rings and polished tools from chlorite schist in sandy soil, suggesting early ground-tilling with pointed sticks, using stone rings as weights.
Other notable peninsular sites include Valsana and Hirpur in Gujarat; Sarai Nahar Rai, Morhana Pahar, Chopani Mando, and Lekhahia in Uttar Pradesh; Bhimbetka, Adamgarh, and Hoshangabad in Madhya Pradesh; and Ranchi, Palamu, Bhagalpur, and Rajgir in Bihar. Recent finds have come from Mirzapur, Singrauli, Banda, and the Vindhya region in Uttar Pradesh.
Mesolithic Discoveries in Eastern India
In eastern India, microliths are mainly from Odisha and Bengal’s laterite plains and the Chota Nagpur plateau. These are non-geometric, lacking triangles and trapezoids. Tools were primarily made from white quartz, but chert, chalcedony, crystal, quartzite, and wood remnants have also been found. Sites include Birbhanpur along the Damodar River in West Bengal’s Bardhaman district; Mayurbhanj, Keonjhar, Kuchai, and Sundargarh in Odisha; and the Garo Hills in Meghalaya.
Mesolithic Sites in the Krishna-Godavari Delta
Abundant microliths have been found in the Krishna-Godavari Delta, some persisting into the Neolithic. In Tamil Nadu’s Sanganakallu, cores, flakes, burins, and axe-like tools were discovered. Andhra Pradesh’s Kurnool and Renigunta also yielded microliths. Notably, some sites are chronologically late but show Mesolithic influences, hence included here. Only Bagor (Rajasthan), Sarai Nahar Rai, Mahagara (Pratapgarh, Uttar Pradesh), and Adamgarh (Madhya Pradesh) are fully Mesolithic based on chronology and material culture.
Characteristics of the Mesolithic culture in India
Mesolithic humans differed slightly from Paleolithic ones, evident in their tools, social structures, religious beliefs, and economy. This era is called a “transitional period.” The early phases are represented by pre-potteries and non-geometric layers at Virbhanpur in South India and Mirzapur. Sites like Mirzapur, other Uttar Pradesh and Madhya Pradesh locations, and Langhnaj in northern Gujarat likely represent the next phase. While no evidence of animal domestication or early agriculture exists, pottery was found—though poorly fired and limited—suggesting semi-permanent settlements.
Like in earlier eras, the economy relied on hunting and gathering. However, late Mesolithic evidence from Rajasthan, Gujarat, and Uttar Pradesh indicates hunter-gatherers adopted some agricultural practices. Sites like Bagor show early farming and pastoralism. Around 6000 BCE, Bagor and Adamgarh provide evidence of human activities involving sheep and goats, implying a somewhat settled lifestyle.
Evidence from Bagor and Langhnaj suggests these Mesolithic groups interacted and traded with the Harappan civilization and other Chalcolithic cultures. Three copper arrowheads of the Harappan type were found at Bagor.
Humans learned to cook grains during this period. Charred bones from pit hearths indicate roasting meat. Underground pit hearths and handmade pots were found at Chopani Mando and Sarai Nahar Rai. Mahagara yielded evidence of dwellings, burials, pit hearths, and queen-like tools. Despite this, agriculture and pastoralism were not full economic components.
Burial practices in the Mesolithic Period
The first evidence of deliberate burial dates to the Mesolithic. Burial sites were discovered at Bagor in Rajasthan, Langhnaj in Gujarat, and Bhimbetka in Madhya Pradesh. Human skeletal remains come from Sarai Nahar Rai, Mahagara, and Damdama in Pratapgarh (Uttar Pradesh). At Chopani Mando, burials faced west. Some human skeletons were accompanied by dog remains, indicating dogs as ancient human companions.
Rock Art and Social Insights from the Mesolithic Era
Upper Paleolithic and Mesolithic humans used rock shelters for dwellings, where numerous man-made paintings are found. Rock engravings and paintings provide crucial information about Mesolithic social, economic life, and activities.
Rock art samples span from Chargul in Pakistan to Odisha in the east, the Kumaon hills in the north, and Kerala in the south. Colors used include red, green, white, and yellow. Mesolithic examples abound at Morhana Pahar in Uttar Pradesh, Bhimbetka, Adamgarh, and Lakhajuar in Madhya Pradesh, and Kupagallu in Karnataka. Themes include animal hunting, food gathering, fishing, and other activities. Most depict animals in groups or singly. Cave paintings of communal hunts indicate strong social organization. Rhinoceros hunting scenes at Adamgarh suggest collective large-game pursuit. Depictions include dancing, running, hunting, games, and warfare. Funerals, child-rearing, and communal sexual activities are also reflected in.
