The Historicity of “Bharat” and the Background of the Indus Civilization
Ancient Bharatvarsha was far larger than present-day India. It included what are now Pakistan, India, and Bangladesh. The Vedic literature never mentions Bharat as a country.
The earliest reference to it appears in the Puranas:
“उत्तरं यत्समुद्रस्य हिमाद्रेश्चैव दक्षिणम्।
वर्षं तद् भारतं नाम भारती यत्र सन्ततिः।।” (विष्णु पुराण)
In English: the land north of the ocean and south of the Himalayas is called Bharata, and the descendants of Bharata live there.
The earliest inscriptional reference to the name is in Kharavela’s Hathigumpha inscription, which reads “Dasame ca vase damda samdhi sa (mamayo) bharadavasa pathanam.” In Ashoka’s inscriptions, the land is called Jambudvipa.
Several things lay behind the geographic setting and advanced economy of the Indus civilization: the ecology of the region at the time, a sophisticated technical knowledge, wheeled carts for fast travel, and the development of resources rich in natural wealth. Dating the artifacts recovered from excavations also gave the study of India’s cultural and economic history a firm chronological footing.
The sheer size and prosperity of Mohenjo-daro and Harappa are clear evidence that the people of the Indus civilization were economically well off. Agriculture, animal husbandry, a range of industries and crafts, and trade and commerce all contributed to their prosperous economic life. This urban civilization grew because farmers produced a surplus and trade and commerce expanded. Once advanced grain-growing techniques and specialized crafts came into wide use, a farmer could grow far more than his own family needed. Rulers, priests, soldiers, townspeople, merchants, and artisans all met their needs from his produce.
Agriculture
A Favorable Geography and Flood-Based Farming
The geography of ancient India was so well suited to farming and related activities that it would be surprising if agriculture had not begun very early here. The land of the Indus region was much more fertile then than it is today. In the fourth century BCE, one of Alexander’s historians noted that the Indus region was counted among the fertile parts of the country. Natural vegetation was abundant in earlier times, which brought good rainfall. The baked-brick protective walls found at sites suggest that the rivers flooded every year. The fertile alluvial silt that the Indus and its tributaries deposited each year greatly increased the soil’s fertility, which mattered enormously for farming. People sowed seed in the flood plains in November, after the floodwaters receded, and harvested wheat and barley in April, before the next flood arrived.
Crops Grown
The fertile plains of the Indus River valley mainly produced wheat and barley. Nine crops have been identified so far. Wheat was grown in abundance, with three varieties of wheat and two of barley under cultivation. Two types of wheat seed, Triticum sphaerococcum and Triticum compactum, have been found in excavations. The barley found at Banawali is an improved variety. Rice was grown only in Gujarat (Lothal) and possibly in Rajasthan. Remains of rice and millet cultivation have been found at Lothal. Mustard, sesame, dates, rye, and cotton were also grown. Cotton was probably first cultivated here, which is why the Greeks called this region “Sindon.” The people also grew many kinds of fruits and vegetables. Excavations at Harappan sites have turned up evidence of the peepal, date palm, neem, lemon, pomegranate, and banana.
Farming Tools
Tools for farm work were made of stone and bronze. No hoe or plowshare has been found. However, the furrows discovered in the pre-Harappan levels at Kalibangan show that fields in Rajasthan were plowed in this period. No remains of a metal plow have been found, but there is no doubt that the plowing was of high quality. A clay toy resembling a plow was found at Banawali. D. D. Kosambi held that the Indus people did not know the heavy plow. That view is hard to accept, given the clay plows from Bahawalpur and Banawali and the plowed field at Kalibangan. Deep plowing is also impossible without a plow, and without deep plowing there would be no surplus production and no urbanization. Yet it is clear that the Indus civilization was an urban one. At Mehrgarh (Pakistan), evidence of farming has been found in the form of wheat, barley, grapes, and cotton. Water from rivers was probably used for irrigation, though reservoirs and wells may have been used too.
Harvesting, Storage, and Processing
Sickles of stone or bronze were probably used to harvest crops, since a sickle has been found at Mehrgarh. Baskets for storing grain have also been found. Surplus produce was kept in state-controlled storehouses (granaries), and the huge granary at Mohenjo-daro is proof of this. Clay rat traps were used to protect grain from rodents. A mortar and pestle were used to pound grain. Two stones from a grinding mill for flour have been found at Lothal. Rice husks have been found in some clay pots from Lothal and Rangpur.
The Great Granary and Great Bath of Mohenjo-daro
The Great Granary of Mohenjo-daro stood on the city’s citadel mound. It was about 45.71 meters long and 15.23 meters wide, and it had ventilated corridors to keep air moving through the stored grain. The famous Great Bath on the same citadel mound is about 11.88 meters long, 7.01 meters wide, and 2.43 meters deep. Many scholars link it to religious and social rituals. It is not directly an economic structure, but its waterproof brickwork and its use of a bitumen-like material show how advanced the civilization’s engineering was. That, in turn, points indirectly to its economic and technological prosperity.
Animal Husbandry
Animal husbandry held an important place alongside farming in the Indus civilization. Animals were used for farming and transport. Pictures on pottery and seals, along with skeletal remains, suggest that the main domesticated animals were humped and humpless bulls, buffalo, cows, sheep and goats, dogs, donkeys, mules, and pigs. The Harappans were probably also familiar with tigers, elephants, and rhinoceroses, but evidence that they kept elephants or horses has not been confirmed. A donkey bone has been found at Harappa. S. R. Rao found archaeological evidence of the cow and the horse at Lothal and Rangpur. The skeleton of a horse from the Indus period was found at Surkotada. Among the evidence of domesticated animals from Shikarpur in Gujarat, buffalo, horses, and dogs were the most prominent. The remains of some other animals and birds, including monkeys, rabbits, deer, chickens, peacocks, parrots, and owls, have been found in the form of toys and figurines.
Crafts and Industries
Many kinds of crafts and industries were the foundation of the developed urban life of the Indus people. Several crafts and industries were well advanced at this time, including seal and figurine making, textiles, pottery, and bead making. Spinning, weaving, and embroidery were common.
Seals and Figurines
Seals held a special place in Harappan civilization. More than 2,000 seals have been recovered from various sites so far, and about 1,398 of them came from Mohenjo-daro alone. Most seals were made of steatite, but some were made of faience, agate, chert, and clay. They come in rectangular, square, round, cubic, and circular shapes, and a few are cylindrical. Various images were engraved on the seals with a stamp. Most seals carry a short inscription along with pictures of the unicorn bull, buffalo, tiger, rhinoceros, deer, goat, and elephant, and the unicorn bull is the most common figure. Copper seals have been found at Lothal and Desalpur. Many figures of women, men, animals, and birds, made of stone, metal, and baked clay, have been found at Mohenjo-daro, Harappa, Lothal, Kalibangan, and other sites. This shows that figurines were also made on a large scale in this civilization.
The Indus Script and Its Economic Purpose
The script engraved on Indus seals has still not been fully deciphered. Even so, most scholars believe the seals mainly served economic and administrative purposes. They were probably used to mark ownership or place of origin on trade goods, to mark ownership of property, or to record tax collection. The role of the seals suggests that the Indus civilization had a well-organized, centralized economic and administrative system that regulated both trade and production.
The Textile Industry
Cotton was grown on a large scale in the Indus region, which encouraged the textile industry. Both cotton and woolen cloth were made here. Marks of woven cloth have been found on a clay trough from Alamgirpur. At Mohenjo-daro, remains of cloth dyed red with madder were found in a silver vessel. Cotton cloth and cotton thread wrapped around two copper implements were also found at Mohenjo-daro. Impressions of cotton cloth have been found at Mohenjo-daro, Lothal, Rangpur, and Kalibangan. The stone statue of the priest from Mohenjo-daro wears a shawl decorated with a trefoil pattern. All this suggests that textiles, spinning, and weaving were well developed at the time. Spindles and spinning wheels used in spinning and weaving have also been found.
The Metal Industry
The people of the Indus civilization used stone tools and implements, but they were also well acquainted with metalworking. They knew how to smelt metal, cast it, and shape it in molds. Bronze was made by mixing tin and copper. They got their copper from the mines at Khetri in Rajasthan and their tin from Afghanistan, since neither mineral was available locally in sufficient quantity. Coppersmiths and bronze workers probably held an important place in society. Copper and bronze tools have been found in large numbers in excavations. The main ones include bronze jugs, bowls, and griddles, long and short axes, saws, fishhooks, and copper swords and knives.
Besides coppersmiths, Harappan society also had communities of masons and jewelers. Gold and silver for jewelry probably came from Afghanistan, and gems from South India. A necklace from Lothal made of many gold beads is a remarkable piece of craftsmanship. Some metal statues have also been found, and the bronze dancing girl from Mohenjo-daro is the most famous. The copper dog from Lothal is unmatched as a work of art. The copper ikka cart from Harappa and the two copper cart models from Chanhudaro are also important. The Harappans also knew about lead.
The Pottery Industry
Pottery was also well developed in Harappan civilization. Potters made bricks for buildings, and they also made clay pots, toys, and ornaments. Wheel-made pottery was quite common at this time, though handmade pottery has been found as well. The main Harappan vessels were jars, cups, water pitchers, and troughs. They were properly fired and decorated with paintings. Some clay plates with compartments and some rat traps have also been found in excavations. Clay toys shaped like animals and birds, toy carts, and clay figurines have been found in large numbers.
The Bead Industry
Although this was a Bronze Age civilization, Harappan craftsmen made beads, figurines, ornaments, and other items from stone and metal. Bead-making workshops have come to light at Chanhudaro and Lothal. Beads made of steatite, shell, ivory, conch, and clay were used as toys and ornaments. Stone weights have been found in large numbers at sites of this civilization. At Chanhudaro, steatite seals and chert weights were also made. The shell industry was well developed at Balakot and Lothal. Many tools and toiletry items were also made from ivory. The picture of a boat on a Mohenjo-daro seal and the dockyard found at Lothal suggest that boat and ship building was also a major industry here. Physicians, masons, and fishermen also practiced well-developed trades.
Raw Material Supply
Raw materials for industries and crafts were brought in from Gujarat, Sindh, Rajasthan, South India, Baluchistan, and other regions. Raw material was also imported from Afghanistan, the Soviet region, Turkmenia, and Mesopotamia (Sumer). Agate for making beads came from Gujarat. Blocks of flint and chert came from the quarries at Rohri and Sukkur in the Sindh region of Pakistan. Copper was brought from the mines at Khetri in Rajasthan’s Jhunjhunu district. Gold probably came from the Kolar mines in Karnataka.
Dholavira’s Bead-Making Expertise
Large quantities of bead-making tools and half-finished beads have also been found at Dholavira in Gujarat. This makes it clear that, along with Chanhudaro and Lothal, Dholavira was an important center of craft production. A large inscription found at Dholavira has ten big Indus-script symbols and is known as the “Dholavira signboard.” It suggests that the city may have had a tradition of posting public notices about administrative or commercial matters at its main gate.
Trade and Commerce
Production Centers and Marketing Centers
Well-developed trade and commerce were a major foundation of the Indus civilization’s prosperity. Both their internal and external trade were quite advanced. The cities involved in trade were mainly of two kinds. Mohenjo-daro, Chanhudaro, Harappa, and Kot Diji were linked to production, while Lothal, Dholavira, Surkotada, and Balasor were linked to marketing. The Harappans traded in stone, metal, silk, and other goods within the Indus region. However, the raw materials they needed for their products were not available in their own cities, so they had to build trade contacts with foreign lands. They set up a commercial colony in northern Afghanistan (Shortughai), which helped their trading activities. The need to sell finished goods probably strengthened these trade relationships.
Foreign Trade
The people of this civilization had close trade ties with Mesopotamia, Egypt, Bahrain, Crete, and other lands. Ur was an important port for entering Mesopotamia. Mesopotamian records show trade with “Meluhha” and also mention two intermediate trade centers, “Dilmun” and “Makan.” Meluhha is the ancient name for the Sindh region. Merchants of Ur obtained gold, silver, red stone (carnelian), lapis lazuli, ivory goods, dates, various kinds of wood, especially ebony, peacocks, and more from there. Dilmun has been identified with the island of Bahrain in the Persian Gulf, and Makan (Magan) with the Makran coast of Baluchistan. Persian seals have been found at Lothal in Gujarat, which suggests that trade with different countries moved by sea through the port of Lothal. S. R. Rao found some archaeological evidence resembling the figure of a gorilla and a mummy, which points to trade relations with Egypt. Similarly, the trade relationship with Crete is inferred from seals found there that show a mother goddess, a lion-man fight, and similar images.
Meluhha in Mesopotamian Records
A Mesopotamian inscription of Sargon I of Akkad (roughly 2334–2279 BCE) records that ships from Meluhha, Makan, and Dilmun docked at the harbor of his capital, Akkad. This inscription is the most direct and authentic historical evidence of sea trade between the Indus civilization and Mesopotamia. Some Mesopotamian records also mention interpreters (translators) of Meluhha. This shows that the trade was regular and well organized enough to need a dedicated system of language translation.
Imported and Exported Goods
The people of the Indus civilization traded with Rajasthan, Afghanistan, Iran, and Central Asia. Lapis lazuli and silver were imported from Afghanistan. Turquoise, tin, and silver were imported from Iran. Gold came from South India (Mysore). Copper came from Rajasthan, Baluchistan, and Arabia. Tin came from Afghanistan, Iran, and Rajasthan. Precious stones such as lapis lazuli, agate, emerald, and coral were brought from Afghanistan, Iran, Maharashtra, Saurashtra, Rajasthan, and Kashmir.
Exports from the Indus to Mesopotamia included cotton cloth, timber, spices, ivory, copper, gold, silver, and animals and birds. A Harappan-made copper cosmetic case has been found in excavations at Ur. From Mesopotamia, the Harappans imported beads, metals, medicines, and luxury goods. Written records show that gold, silver, lapis lazuli, carnelian beads, ivory combs, animals and birds, and jewelry were imported from Dilmun (Bahrain). About a dozen Harappan seals have been found in Mesopotamian cities such as Sumer, Ur, Kish, Lagash, Nippur, Tell Asmar, Tepe Gawra, Umma, and Assur. Some historians believe there may have been a settlement of Indus merchants in Mesopotamia.
Exchange System and Modes of Transport
The people of the Harappan civilization did not use metal coins in trade. Their trade rested on a barter system. Craftsmen and merchants stamped their seal on one side of a bundle of trade goods and marked the sign of the goods being sent on the other side. Trade moved mainly by water routes, though land routes were used too. The people knew the wheel and used two-wheeled and four-wheeled bullock carts or buffalo carts for transport, with solid wheels. A boat is pictured on a seal from Mohenjo-daro, and a clay boat-like toy was found at Lothal. This suggests that people of this civilization used sailing boats with masts in both internal and external trade.
The Lothal Dockyard
The dockyard found at Lothal is considered one of the oldest known artificial docks in the world. It was probably built with the principle of tidal flow in mind. At high tide, ships could enter the dock, and at low tide a fixed water level could still be maintained in it, so that ships could sail and moor safely. The structure shows the Indus civilization’s skill in maritime engineering and sea trade. It also confirms that Lothal was developed as a well-planned port city.
Weights and Measures
Weights and measures were used in trade. Excavations have turned up various kinds of remains related to weights and measures, which shows that different kinds of weights were used in this civilization to measure trade goods by weight. The weights were made of stone and were shaped to fixed sizes. The smallest weight was 13.64 grams. Weight-like objects have been found in large numbers at Mohenjo-daro, Harappa, Lothal, and Kalibangan. The weights were cubical, spherical, cylindrical, conical, and barrel-shaped. At first they followed a doubling (binary) system, but later they followed multiples of 16. Weights of 1, 2, 4, 8, 16, 32, 64, 160, 320, 1600, and 3200 units have been found. So 16 or its multiples was used in measurement. Until not long ago, one rupee in India was worth 16 annas. The largest weight found is 10,900 grams and the smallest is 0.8565 grams. A scale made of shell was found at Mohenjo-daro and one made of ivory at Lothal.
Conclusion
The economic life of the Indus civilization rested on a strong combination of agriculture, animal husbandry, a wide range of crafts and industries, and a well-organized internal and international trade system. Several things show that it was an advanced, well-organized, and prosperous civilization, among the oldest in the world:
- farming enriched by fertile river soil
- a regulated trading system built on seals and standardized weights
- foreign trade reaching distant lands like Mesopotamia, Egypt, Bahrain, and Crete
- the development of specially planned port cities like Lothal and Dholavira
Its technical and commercial achievements remain an important subject of research for archaeologists and historians today.
Frequently Asked Questions: Economic Life in the Indus Civilization
Q1. What was the main basis of the Indus civilization’s economy?
Agriculture, animal husbandry, and various crafts and industries, such as seals and figurines, textiles, metalwork, pottery, and beads, along with trade and commerce, were its main foundations. Surplus grain from agriculture made the growth of cities like Mohenjo-daro and Harappa possible.
Q2. What crops did the people of the Indus civilization grow?
Wheat and barley were the main crops. Rice (only at Lothal in Gujarat), millet, dates, mustard, sesame, and cotton were also grown. Cotton farming probably began here before anywhere else in the world, which is why the Greeks called this region “Sindon.”
Q3. What is the debate over the use of the plow in the Indus civilization?
Because no metal plows have been found, D. D. Kosambi held that the Indus people did not know the heavy plow. But that view is hard to accept given the clay plows from Bahawalpur and Banawali and the plowed field at Kalibangan, since deep plowing and urbanization would have been impossible without a plow.
Q4. What was the importance of seals in the Indus civilization?
More than 2,000 seals have been found, mostly made of steatite. They carry animal images such as the unicorn bull along with a short inscription. They were probably used to mark ownership on trade goods.
Q5. What foreign trade links did the Indus people have?
They had close trade with Mesopotamia, Egypt, Bahrain (Dilmun), and Crete. Mesopotamian records call the Indus region “Meluhha,” and the mention of Meluhha’s ships in Sargon I’s inscription is direct proof of this trade. Lothal and Dholavira were the main port centers.
Q6. What system of exchange and weights and measures did they use in trade?
A barter system was in use instead of coins, and goods were marked with seal impressions. Stone weights were used for measuring, made in multiples of 16 (16, 32, 64, and so on). That is why the Indian rupee was worth 16 annas until recently.
A couple of notes: I kept every fact, name, and figure exactly as in your original, including the ones scholars still debate. I also dropped the “[bg_collapse]” shortcodes and turned the FAQs into plain Q&A. If your blog theme uses an accordion plugin, you can paste the shortcodes back around the answers. I can also put this in a file if you’d like one.