The Swaraj Party & Constructive Work Movement (1922–1925): A Key Phase in India’s Freedom Struggle

Introduction

The period between 1922 and 1925 marked a critical juncture in India’s independence struggle. Following the suspension of the Non-Cooperation Movement, Indian nationalists faced a strategic dilemma: should they continue boycotting British institutions or engage with them to expose their limitations? This debate led to the formation of the Swaraj Party and a parallel movement focusing on constructive programs.

Background: The Post-Non-Cooperation Crisis

Organizational Decline

After Mahatma Gandhi withdrew the Non-Cooperation Movement in February 1922 following the Chauri Chaura incident, the Indian National Congress faced severe organizational challenges:

• Congress membership plummeted to 106,046 by March 1923
• Gandhi’s arrest in March 1922 created a leadership vacuum
• Uncertainty about future direction paralyzed the movement

The Strategic Debate

In June 1922, the All India National Congress Committee established the Civil Disobedience Inquiry Committee to chart the organization’s future course. Two distinct approaches emerged:

Constructive Work Advocates:

• Leaders: Dr. Ansari, C. Rajagopalachari, Kasturi Ranga Iyengar
• Strategy: Focus on Gandhian constructive programs in villages
• Philosophy: Build alternative institutions and prepare masses for future struggles

Council Entry Advocates:

• Leaders: Chittaranjan Das, Motilal Nehru, Vitthal Bhai Patel, Hakim Ajmal Khan
• Strategy: Enter legislative councils to obstruct government from within
• Philosophy: “Wreck the constitution from within”

The Gaya Congress Session (December 1922)

Chittaranjan Das’s Presidential Address

Chittaranjan Das presided over the All India National Congress session at Gaya in December 1922. He advocated for entry into legislative councils and suggested Congress should participate in the 1923 general elections under the 1919 Government of India Act.

Two months before the Gaya session, at the United Provinces Provincial Conference in Dehradun, Das had articulated his famous principle: “Swaraj should be for the common people, not just for the privileged classes.”

The Defeat of Council Entry

The proposal for council entry faced strong opposition from Congress leaders including:

• Vallabhbhai Patel
• C. Rajagopalachari
• Rajendra Prasad

The resolution for council entry was rejected by 1,740 votes against 890 votes. Following this defeat, C.R. Das and Motilal Nehru resigned from their positions.

Formation of the Swaraj Party (March 1923)

Leadership and Organization

Undeterred by the Gaya defeat, Chittaranjan Das joined forces with like-minded leaders to establish a new political party:

Founding Members:

• Chittaranjan Das (President)
• Motilal Nehru (Secretary)
• Hakim Ajmal Khan
• Vitthal Bhai Patel
• Madan Mohan Malaviya
• N.C. Kelkar

Official Name: Congress-Khilafat Swaraj Party (commonly known as the Swaraj Party)

Party Program and Ideology

The Swaraj Party accepted the entire Congress program except for one crucial difference: it would participate in council elections.

Two Factions Emerged:

1. Pro-changers (Swarajists): Those supporting council entry under C.R. Das
2. No-changers (Constructivists): Those boycotting councils and supporting Gandhian programs

Party Objectives

The Swaraj Party declared it would:

• Contest elections to legislative councils
• Demand formation of a responsible government
• Obstruct government proceedings if demands were not met
• Create unified opposition to British policies
• Work toward complete provincial autonomy
• Achieve Dominion Status at the earliest

The Compromise and Congress Acceptance

September 1923: Delhi Special Session

At the special Delhi session in September 1923, a compromise was reached allowing Congressmen to contest elections.

December 1923: Kakinada Session

The regular Kakinada session in December 1923 formalized this arrangement. Simultaneously, an All India Khadi Board was established.

Gandhi’s Release and Ahmedabad AICC (June 1924)

Gandhi was released from jail on February 5, 1924. At the Ahmedabad AICC session in June 1924, Gandhi proposed:

• Making spinning a minimum qualification for Congress membership
• Removing those who entered councils from positions
• Condemning revolutionary activities in Bengal (specifically the Gopinath Saha incident)

The first two proposals were rejected. The third proposal condemning Gopinath Saha passed narrowly (78 to 70 votes), with C.R. Das and most Bengali delegates opposing it.

Gandhi wrote in the July 3, 1924 issue of ‘Young India’ that he felt “defeated and humiliated.”

The Gandhi-Das-Nehru Agreement

Gandhi eventually reached an agreement with Swarajist leaders C.R. Das and Motilal Nehru, allowing Swarajists to work in councils while remaining integral members of the Congress organization.

Pattabhi Sitaramayya described this as “Gandhi’s surrender to Deshbandhu Das and Motilal on the question of council entry and boycott.”

Swaraj Party’s Election Manifesto and Strategy

The October 14, 1923 Election Manifesto

The Swarajists made opposition to imperialism their central election issue. The manifesto stated:

“The purpose of British rule in India is to serve England’s selfish interests… The real objective of the British is to exploit India’s unlimited resources and keep the Indian people subservient to Britain.”

The manifesto pledged that Swarajists would:

• Fight within legislative councils
• Expose the hypocrisy of the government
• Obstruct government business systematically

Core Strategy

The main objective was to:

1. Contest elections to legislative assemblies
2. Enter councils and create obstacles for government functioning
3. Oppose budgets
4. Condemn administrative evils
5. Prevent passage of undesirable bills
6. Demand complete provincial autonomy and Dominion Status
7. Force the government to grant Swaraj

C.R. Das stated: “We want to destroy and free ourselves from a system that is not and cannot be beneficial for us.”

Electoral Success (November 1923)

Central Legislative Assembly Results

The Swaraj Party achieved remarkable success in the November 1923 elections:

Central Legislature:

• Won 42 out of 101 contested seats
• Secured absolute majority in Central Provinces
• Won 47 out of 85 general Hindu and Muslim seats
• Captured 21 Muslim constituencies

Bengal: The Greatest Victory

Bengal witnessed the Swaraj Party’s most impressive performance:

• B.C. Roy defeated veteran leader Surendranath Banerjee decisively
• Success attributed to C.R. Das’s effective leadership

The Bengal Pact (December 1923):

C.R. Das promised Muslims:

• 55% representation in administrative posts after achieving Swaraj
• No music before mosques
• No interference in cow sacrifice during Bakr-Eid

This tactical alliance helped consolidate Muslim support.

Legislative Achievements and Confrontations

Forming a Common Political Front

Swarajists created a unified political front in the Central Legislative Assembly, exposing the dyarchical system as ineffective constitutional reform.

The February 8, 1924 Resolution

On February 8, 1924, Swarajists moved a resolution in the Central Council demanding:

• Establishment of a government responsible to the Indian people
• Amendments to the 1919 Act
• Convening a Round Table Conference with Indian representatives
• Creation of a constitution considering minority interests

Government Response and Repression

On October 25, 1924, the government issued an ordinance arresting numerous Swarajists, revolutionaries, and Congress leaders.

Gandhi wrote in ‘Young India’: “If I do not support the Swarajists at this hour of need, it would be a betrayal of the country.”

The November 6, 1924 Joint Statement

On November 6, 1924, Gandhi bridged the gap between Swarajists and their opponents. C.R. Das, Motilal Nehru, and Gandhi issued a joint statement:

“Under Congress leadership, Swarajist leaders will continue their work in legislatures as an integral part of Congress.”

Major Legislative Battles (1924-1926)

Budget Rejections

Between 1924 and 1926, the Swaraj Party:

• Rejected government budgets
• Opposed government legislation
• Established the principle: No financial bills would pass until grievances were addressed

The Governor-General was forced to use special powers to pass financial proposals.

Defending Nationalist Revolutionaries

C.S. Ranga Iyer responded to government criticism of nationalist revolutionaries:

“Government officials themselves are criminals, murderers. These are the people who are murdering the freedom of a freedom-loving people.”

Blocking the Lee Commission (1924)

Swarajists prevented passage of the Lee Commission, established to maintain racial superiority in government jobs.

Provincial Successes

In provincial councils, Swaraj Party members made governance difficult for the British:

Central Provinces and Bengal:

• Governors repeatedly forced to use certification powers to pass bills

Bengal:

• C.R. Das invited to accept ministerial position
• Declined due to party policies

March 1925:

• Nationalist leader Vitthal Bhai Patel became Speaker of the All India Legislative Assembly

The Muddiman Committee Report (1925)

When the government presented Alexander Muddiman Committee’s report (examining 1919 reforms) to the Central Legislative Assembly in 1925:

• Motilal Nehru moved a resolution proving dyarchy unworkable
• Successfully passed the resolution against the report
• Forced government to announce formation of a committee (Simon Commission) to examine India’s future constitutional status

Decline of the Swaraj Party

Death of C.R. Das (June 1925)

The death of Chittaranjan Das in June 1925 proved a devastating blow. The Swaraj Party gradually weakened thereafter.

Government’s Divide and Rule Success

British policies succeeded in:

• Separating Swarajists from liberals
• Dividing militant Swarajists from moderates
• Creating Hindu-Muslim tensions

Bengal Landlord Issue:

In Bengal, majority Swarajists failed to support tenant demands against landlords (mostly Hindus), angering tenants (mostly Muslims).

Internal Splits

Formation of the Nationalist Party (1925)

Over power-sharing and communalism issues, the Swaraj Party split:

• Motilal Nehru’s old rival, Responsibilist Madan Mohan Malaviya
• Allied with Lala Lajpat Rai and N.C. Kelkar
• Formed the independent ‘Nationalist Party’ in 1925
• Claimed to protect Hindu interests

Acceptance of Office

Central Provinces (October 1925):

• S.B. Tambe became first Swaraj Party member to accept ministerial position in Governor’s Executive Council

1925:

• B.J. Patel accepted position of Central Council President

C.R. Das’s Shift (May 1925):

• At Faridpur Conference, Das indicated willingness to cooperate
• Cooperation conditioned on prisoner release and constitutional reform negotiations

Leadership Succession Crisis in Bengal

After C.R. Das’s death, intense succession struggle erupted:

• G.M. Sengupta defeated Birendra Sasmal in 1927

Electoral Defeats (1926)

In 1926 elections, Swarajists were defeated everywhere except Madras by:

• Hindu Mahasabha
• Pro-cooperation forces’ united front

Evaluation of Swarajist Achievements

Failures and Limitations

Lack of Mass Connection:

1. Failed to connect parliamentary struggle with political struggle outside parliament
2. Confrontational ideology prevented consistent cooperation with allies
3. Lacked mass support due to representing capitalist class interests

Organizational Weaknesses:

1. Despite C.R. Das emphasizing organizing workers and peasants, no concrete steps taken
2. Failed to prevent communal elements infiltrating the party

Significant Contributions

Political Impact:

1. Gave new direction to Indian national movement through attractive programs
2. Infused enthusiasm among Indian masses
3. Never succumbed to colonial temptations or cooperated with oppressors
4. Developed strong relationships between politicians and Indian business communities

Constitutional Victories:

1. 1924: Government provided protection to Tata’s steel industry
2. Forced British to form Simon Commission ahead of schedule
3. Eventually led to abolition of dyarchy system

Ideological Contribution:

• Proved that working within colonial institutions could effectively expose their limitations
• Demonstrated that constitutional opposition could complement mass movements

The No-Changers (Constructivists)

Constructive Work Programs

While Swarajists resisted imperialist rule within legislatures, No-changers peacefully engaged in constructive work:

Educational Initiatives:

• Established hundreds of ashrams promoting spinning wheel (charkha) and khadi
• Founded hundreds of national schools and colleges
• Trained youth in anti-colonial ideology

Social Programs:

• Struggled against untouchability
• Boycotted alcohol and foreign cloth
• Provided flood relief
• Organized community development projects

Ideological Relationship:

Though Swarajists and No-changers differed in ideology and methodology, they had no fundamental disagreement. Both streams complemented each other in the broader freedom struggle.

Civil Disobedience Movements (1922-1925)

Flag Satyagraha (Mid-1923)

In mid-1923, Flag Satyagraha was conducted in some Nagpur areas to protest local bans on using the Congress flag.

Guru ka Bagh Satyagraha (August 1922 – April 1923)

Background and Conflict

The Guru ka Bagh Satyagraha began due to:

• Dispute between deposed mahant (priest) and newly formed Shiromani Gurdwara Prabandhak Committee
• Conflict over disputed land and tree-cutting

Resolution

Punjab’s new Governor Malcolm Hailey ended the dispute in 1925 through the Sikh Gurdwaras and Shrines Act.

Significance:

• Demonstrated Sikh community’s capacity for peaceful resistance
• Showcased Gandhian methods of protest
• Strengthened Sikh religious-political organization

Tarakeshwar Movement (1924, Bengal)

Swami Vishwanand launched the ‘Tarakeshwar Movement’ against a corrupt mahant over local issues in Bengal in 1924.

Barsad Dacoity Tax

September 1923:

• Government imposed a dacoity tax of 2 rupees 7 annas on every adult in Barsad

February 7, 1924:

• Government withdrew the dacoity tax following protests

Vaikom Satyagraha (1924-1925)

India’s First Temple Entry Movement

The Vaikom Satyagraha was the first temple entry movement in India, conducted by:

• Lower-caste Ezhavas
• Untouchables (Dalits)
• Using Gandhian methods

Objective

The movement sought to secure rights for lower castes to use roads near a temple in Travancore (present-day Kerala).

Leadership

Key Leaders:

• T.K. Madhavan (Ezhava Congress leader)
• K. Kelappan (Nair Congress leader)
• K.P. Kesava Menon (Nair Congress leader)

Gandhi’s Involvement

March 1925:

• Gandhi visited Vaikom
• Advised Christians to stay away from the movement
• Emphasized it as a Hindu social reform issue

Outcome

After 20 months of persistent satyagraha:

• Government constructed separate roads for untouchables
• Limited victory, but significant symbolic achievement
• Catalyzed future temple entry movements across India

Historical Significance

The Vaikom Satyagraha:

1. First organized struggle against caste-based discrimination in modern India
2. Applied Gandhian satyagraha principles to social reform
3. United different caste groups in common cause
4. Inspired subsequent anti-untouchability movements
5. Demonstrated limitations of peaceful protest when facing entrenched social hierarchies

Conclusion: Legacy of the 1922-1925 Period

Dual Strategy Success

The period 1922-1925 demonstrated that the Indian freedom movement could operate effectively on two fronts simultaneously:

Parliamentary Front (Swarajists):

• Exposed limitations of colonial constitutional reforms
• Created legislative obstacles for British administration
• Maintained political pressure on government

Mass Base Front (No-changers):

• Strengthened organizational infrastructure
• Developed alternative institutions
• Prepared masses for future struggles

Lessons Learned

Strategic Flexibility:

• Movement could accommodate different approaches
• No single method held monopoly on nationalism
• Unity possible despite tactical differences

Social Reform Integration:

• Anti-colonial struggle intertwined with social reform
• Movements like Vaikom Satyagraha addressed caste discrimination
• National liberation required social transformation

Communal Challenge:

• Hindu-Muslim unity remained fragile
• Communal forces exploited political differences
• Need for secular nationalism became apparent

Foundation for Future

This period laid groundwork for:

• Simon Commission boycott (1928)
• Nehru Report and constitutional debates
• Civil Disobedience Movement (1930)
• Mature understanding of constitutional vs. extra-constitutional struggle

The Swaraj Party’s rise and decline, combined with constructive work and localized satyagrahas, proved that Indian nationalism was evolving, experimenting, and preparing for the decisive struggles ahead.

Key Takeaways

1. The Swaraj Party emerged from debates over council entry, proving parliamentary obstruction could effectively challenge colonial rule
2. C.R. Das and Motilal Nehru provided crucial leadership during Congress’s organizational crisis post-Non-Cooperation Movement
3. Electoral success in 1923 gave nationalists platform to expose dyarchy’s failures and demand constitutional reforms
4. Constructive work programs complemented legislative battles, maintaining grassroots connection and building alternative institutions
5. Civil disobedience movements like Guru ka Bagh and Vaikom Satyagraha addressed religious and social issues alongside political freedom
6. Internal contradictions including communalism and class interests eventually weakened Swaraj Party by 1926
7. Legacy endured through forcing Simon Commission formation, demonstrating limits of reforms, and preparing ground for future mass movements