Introduction to the Khilafat and Non-Cooperation Movements
Between 1919 and 1922, two powerful mass movements emerged against British authority in India: the Khilafat Movement and the Non-Cooperation Movement. The background of these movements lies in a series of events that occurred during and after World War I due to steps taken by the British government in the Indian context. Although the Khilafat and Non-Cooperation movements began over separate issues and had no direct connection, both played significant roles in promoting the Indian national movement.
What Was the Khilafat Movement?
Background of the Khilafat Movement
The Khilafat Movement was launched by Indian Muslims for religious reasons. The Sultan of Turkey held the position of ‘Khalifa’ (Caliph), meaning he was recognized as the leader of Muslims in religious and political spheres. Muslims wanted to ensure that Turkey’s position remained unaffected in any way. This is why during the Tripolitanian and Balkan Wars of 1911-12, a “Turkey Relief Fund” was established in India to assist Turkey, and in March 1912, a medical mission (Red Crescent Medical Mission) was sent.
The Ali Brothers (Muhammad Ali and Shaukat Ali) formed the “All-India Anjuman-e-Khuddam-e-Kaaba” (All-India Servants of the Holy Kaaba Society) in 1913 with the support of Abdul Bari’s Firangi Mahal Ulema sect in Lucknow, with the objective of raising funds for the protection of Muslim holy places.
Emergence of Educated Muslim Leadership
From the early years of the twentieth century, a new educated Muslim leadership began to emerge, moving away from Sir Syed Ahmad Khan’s politics of loyalty and the older generation’s elitism, attempting to gain support from the entire community. Muslim newspapers like Muhammad Ali’s “Comrade” (Calcutta), Abul Kalam Azad’s “Al-Hilal” (Calcutta), or Zafar Ali Khan’s “Zamindar” (Lahore) attracted Muslim youth with their Pan-Islamic and anti-British tone.
For mobilizing the Muslim community, “Ziyatul Ansar” (Former Students Association) was started in 1910 and a Quran Madrasa was initiated in Delhi in 1913. Alongside the new educated Muslim leadership, the Ulema also emerged as a new political force, serving as an important link among various Muslim groups in India.
Hindu-Muslim Unity Before World War I
Three national and international events before and during World War I created a broad background for Hindu-Muslim political integration:
- England’s failure to assist Turkey in the Italian and Balkan wars of 1911-12
- Hardinge’s rejection of the proposal to establish a Muslim University in Aligarh in August 1912
- Riots resulting from the demolition of a platform adjacent to a mosque in Kanpur in 1913
Later, the 1916 Lucknow Pact between Congress and the Muslim League also defeated the British policy of “divide and rule.”
Immediate Cause of the Khilafat Movement
British Government’s Betrayal
When World War I began in 1914, Turkey’s Sultan Abdul Hamid II joined the war on Germany’s side. When Russia, England, and France declared war against Turkey on November 14, 1914, Indian Muslims faced the dilemma of whether to help their religious leader, the Sultan of Turkey, or participate in the World War on the side of the British.
In 1915, at the Muslim League convention, President Mazhar-ul-Haq stated: “It is a matter of great sorrow for us that our Khalifa’s government is fighting our Emperor’s government. The conflict between British and Muslim governments is very unfortunate for Muslims. Followers of Islam desire that peace be established soon and that the prestige of Muslims not be harmed in the future.”
However, most Indian Muslim leaders, such as the Ali Brothers, Maulana Abul Kalam Azad, Dr. Mukhtar Ahmad Ansari, Abdul Bari, Maulana Al-Hasan, and Hakim Ajmal Khan, favored supporting Turkey.
The British Promise and Subsequent Betrayal
During World War I, the cooperation of Indian Muslims was essential for the British. British Prime Minister Lloyd George promised Indian Muslims: “If Indian Muslims support the British in this great war, after victory the British will maintain Turkey’s integrity and protect the Islamic religious sites of Arabia and Mesopotamia.”
George stated: “We are not fighting to deprive Turkey of the rich and renowned lands of Asia Minor and Thrace, where mostly people of Turkish race reside.” After this assurance by Lloyd George, Indian Muslims supported the British in World War I.
However, the victorious Allied nations signed the Treaty of Sevres with Turkey on August 10, 1920. Through this treaty, not only was Turkey’s old Ottoman Empire dismantled and all powers of the Sultan of Turkey taken away, but some of its territories were made independent and England and France occupied some areas. This reduced the Sultan of Turkey to prisoner-like status.
Indian Muslims were stunned by this betrayal by the British Prime Minister. When Muslims conveyed their anguish to the Viceroy of India, the Viceroy responded bluntly: “Turkey cannot expect any treatment other than what other countries that raised swords in favor of Germany expect. It must suffer the consequences of joining the war (against the British).” There could be no moreheinous example of betrayal than this.
Launch of the Khilafat Movement
Beginning of the Movement
Aggrieved by British betrayal, Indian Muslims launched a movement for the restoration of the Khilafat, called the “Khilafat Movement.” Although the Treaty of Sevres was signed in 1920, Indian Muslims began doubting British intentions from 1918, because it was at British instigation that Arabs rebelled against their Khalifa in 1918.
This is why at the Delhi session of the Muslim League in December 1918, Sharif Hussein of Mecca was severely criticized, and it was demanded that the integrity of Muslim nations be maintained and Islamic holy and religious sites be returned to the Khalifa.
Formation of All-India Khilafat Committee
When the Muslim League session was being held in Delhi in December 1918, the Congress session was also underway in Delhi under Madan Mohan Malaviya’s presidency. On this occasion, Gandhiji supported the demands of Indian Muslims.
On August 17, 1919, “All-India Khilafat Day” was observed nationally, and Muhammad Ali, Shaukat Ali (Ali Brothers), Abul Kalam Azad, Hasrat Mohani, and others formed the “All-India Khilafat Committee” in September 1919, which launched the Khilafat Movement. At the same time, the Ulema also established “Jamiyat-ul-Ulema.”
Three Main Demands of the Movement
The Khilafat agitators had three main demands:
- Restore the religious and temporal prestige of the Sultan of Turkey and Khalifa over Muslim holy places
- Allow the Khalifa to retain his pre-war territories so he could maintain his position as leader of the Islamic world and protect Islam
- Maintain Muslim sovereignty over Jazirat-ul-Arab (Arabia, Syria, Iraq, and Palestine)
Gandhi’s Support for the Khilafat Movement
The British showed no interest in fulfilling the demands of Khilafat agitators, which increased the anger of Indian Muslims. According to Muhammad Ali, the Khilafat was the most important institution for Muslims worldwide, and their reverence for Turkey was religious. The end of the Turkish Empire meant the end of international Muslim unity. Therefore, Muhammad Ali called upon Indian Muslims to struggle for India’s independence, believing that enslaved India was incapable of helping Turkey and the Khalifa.
By this time, Gandhi had already announced a movement against the Rowlatt Act and events in Punjab. Gandhi saw the Khilafat Movement as “an opportunity to establish unity between Hindus and Muslims that would not come again for the next hundred years.” Gandhi fully supported the Khilafat and wanted to launch Satyagraha and a Non-Cooperation Movement against the government on this issue.
Tilak was not in favor of allying with Muslim leaders on religious issues and was also apprehensive about using ‘Satyagraha’ as a political weapon. Under Gandhi’s pressure, Congress approved Gandhi’s political program to help Muslims in the Khilafat Movement to establish Hindu-Muslim unity and bring the Muslim community into the mainstream of the national movement.
Two Streams in the Khilafat Movement
Two streams developed in the Khilafat Movement: moderate and militant. The first stream was centered on the Central Khilafat Committee, organized in early 1919 by wealthy merchants like Chotani of Bombay. The second stream included lower-middle-class journalists and Ulema who had considerable influence in small towns and villages of United Provinces, Bengal, Sindh, and Malabar.
Bombay’s moderate leaders wanted to limit the movement to restrained meetings, memorandums, and sending delegations to London and Paris. Gandhi made himself important by playing the role of mediator between moderates and militant elements. For Khilafat leaders, Gandhi was the essential link to Hindu politicians.
Keywords: Khilafat Movement strategies, moderate vs militant Muslims, Central Khilafat Committee, Muslim political factions
Integration with Non-Cooperation Movement
In November 1919, the Muslim League decided at its Delhi conference to give full support to Congress for launching a movement on political issues. At the All-India Khilafat Congress in Delhi on November 22-23, 1919, Hasrat Mohani of the militant group advocated for the first time non-cooperation with the British government in India and called for boycotting English goods.
However, Khilafat leaders were very eager for Hindu-Muslim unity because the Non-Cooperation Movement required boycotting services and councils, which was not possible without Hindu cooperation. To secure Hindu cooperation, the Muslim League in December 1919 called for not slaughtering cows on Bakr-Eid.
In December 1919, Gandhi consulted with Congress leaders and Khilafat leaders on the Muslim problem. On January 19, 1920, a joint delegation of Hindus and Muslims under Dr. Ansari’s presidency met Viceroy Chelmsford and demanded resolution of the Khilafat question, but the Viceroy gave no assurances. Subsequently, a delegation was also sent to England under Muhammad Ali Jinnah’s leadership, but it too achieved no significant success.
Non-Cooperation with the Government
On February 20, 1920, a Khilafat conference was organized in Calcutta under Maulana Abul Kalam Azad’s presidency. Based on this, “Black Day” was observed throughout India on March 10, 1920, and on that day Gandhi announced that the Khilafat question was more important than constitutional reforms and Punjab’s atrocities.
The Khilafat leadership made it clear that if post-war peace terms were unfavorable to Muslims, they would stop all cooperation with the government. Shaukat Ali warned the British in April 1920 that if they failed to satisfy Indian Muslims, “we will start a joint Hindu-Muslim non-cooperation movement.” Shaukat Ali emphasized that Gandhi, whom both Muslims and Hindus respect, would work as the movement’s leader. Gandhi also warned the British government that if the peace treaty terms with Turkey did not satisfy Indian Muslims, he would launch a Non-Cooperation Movement.
When the harsh terms of the Treaty of Sevres with Turkey were published on May 15, 1920, Muslims were alarmed. At a Khilafat Committee meeting in Bombay on May 20, 1920, it was announced that the Khilafat Movement would be merged with the Non-Cooperation Movement to be launched by Gandhi. That same month, on May 28, the majority report of the Hunter Commission regarding Punjab disturbances also arrived. Gandhi now pressed Congress to create a program focused on three issues: Punjab atrocities, Khilafat atrocities, and Swaraj.
The Non-Cooperation Program
From June 1 to 3, 1920, the Central Khilafat Committee met in Allahabad, attended by several Congress and Khilafat leaders. This meeting announced a program of non-cooperation with the government, including boycott of government titles, all government jobs, and non-payment of taxes.
Subsequently, on June 9, 1920, at an all-party conference in Allahabad, a program was unanimously created to boycott schools, colleges, and courts, and Gandhi was authorized to lead this movement.
On June 22, Gandhi gave the Viceroy a notice: “Every person has the right to refuse cooperation with a ruler who misgoverns. His Majesty’s government has acted deceitfully, immorally, and unjustly in the Khilafat matter… I can have neither respect nor goodwill for such a government.” Mahatma Gandhi also linked the Khilafat Movement with the Non-Cooperation Movement on August 1, 1920, thus beginning a new phase of the Indian national movement.
End of the Khilafat Movement
Thus, the Khilafat Movement became part of the Non-Cooperation Movement. Although Gandhi’s withdrawal of the Non-Cooperation Movement after the Chauri Chaura incident on February 4, 1922, dealt a severe blow to the Khilafat Movement, it somehow continued.
Subsequently, in 1923, after becoming Sultan of Turkey, Mustafa Kemal Pasha first declared Turkey a republic, and when he abolished the position of Khalifa on March 3, 1924, the Khilafat Movement also came to an end.
Justification of Khilafat in Non-Cooperation Movement
Historians have greatly criticized Gandhi for including the Khilafat Movement in the Non-Cooperation Movement. Scholars believe that the Khilafat Movement was a religious movement, while Non-Cooperation was a political movement. Khalid-bin-Sayeed states: “Muslims were not fighting as much for India’s independence as to maintain the Khilafat in Turkey. On the other hand, Gandhi was using Khilafat as a weapon to accelerate India’s pace toward Swaraj.”
Gandhi sought Muslim cooperation for political objectives through a movement (Khilafat) that was possibly not appropriate for India’s independence movement. India itself was struggling for independence, and on the other hand, by supporting the Khilafat Movement, Gandhi was helping to keep some Muslims and non-Muslims of Arabia under feudal authority.
In R.C. Majumdar’s words, “The Pan-Islamic movement was itself an attack on Indian nationalism. Mahatma Gandhi himself admitted that for Indian Muslims, Khilafat was more important than India’s self-government. In such a situation, what was the justification for joining the Khilafat Movement?” The truth is that even in Turkey itself, there was opposition to the Khilafat, and Young Turks were constantly challenging the Khalifa’s power.
Actually, the very foundation of the Khilafat Movement was wrong. Indian Muslims thought they were doing this in the interest of Turkish Muslims, while Turkish Muslims ridiculed it as medieval buffoonery.
Gandhi’s Perspective on Hindu-Muslim Unity
Conversely, in Gandhi’s view, achieving Swaraj was impossible without Hindu-Muslim unity. Gandhi himself said, “I agree with Jinnah’s view that Hindu-Muslim unity means Swaraj. Until Hindus and Muslims in India mix with each other, Swaraj for India will remain an impossible dream.” Jinnah himself believed this, and the British government also knew that if Hindus and Muslims united, ruling India would become difficult.
The significance of the Khilafat Movement lies in the fact that it united Hindus and Muslims. Although the movement’s objective was to save the Khilafat and protect the religious rights of Indian Muslims, it still promoted Hindu-Muslim unity and cooperation. Hindus supported Muslims in this movement, which helped reduce communal tension for some time. This movement promoted a spirit of solidarity against British colonial rule, and for the first time, large numbers of Muslims were attracted to Congress.
Significance and Legacy of the Khilafat Movement
Key Impacts:
- Mass Mobilization: Brought Muslims into mainstream nationalist politics
- Hindu-Muslim Unity: Created unprecedented cooperation between communities
- Anti-Colonial Solidarity: Unified resistance against British rule
- Political Awakening: Educated masses about colonial exploitation
- Leadership Development: Emerged new Muslim political leaders
The Khilafat Movement, despite its religious origins, became instrumental in shaping India’s freedom struggle. It demonstrated that communal harmony could be achieved for common political goals and that mass movements could challenge colonial authority effectively.
Conclusion
The Khilafat Movement (1919-1924) stands as a unique chapter in Indian history where religious sentiment transformed into political action. While historians debate its appropriateness in the independence movement, its role in mobilizing Muslims, creating Hindu-Muslim unity, and challenging British authority remains undeniable. The movement’s integration with the Non-Cooperation Movement marked a watershed moment in India’s struggle for freedom, demonstrating the power of united resistance against colonial rule.
Frequently Asked Questions (FAQs)
Q1: What was the Khilafat Movement? The Khilafat Movement (1919-1924) was a campaign by Indian Muslims to pressure the British government to preserve the authority of the Ottoman Sultan as Caliph of Islam after World War I.
Q2: Who were the leaders of the Khilafat Movement? Key leaders included the Ali Brothers (Muhammad Ali and Shaukat Ali), Maulana Abul Kalam Azad, Dr. Mukhtar Ahmad Ansari, Hasrat Mohani, and Mahatma Gandhi who supported the movement.
Q3: Why did Gandhi support the Khilafat Movement? Gandhi saw it as an opportunity to achieve Hindu-Muslim unity and bring Muslims into the mainstream Indian independence movement.
Q4: When did the Khilafat Movement end? The movement ended on March 3, 1924, when Mustafa Kemal Ataturk abolished the Caliphate in Turkey.
Q5: What was the Treaty of Sevres? The Treaty of Sevres (August 10, 1920) dismantled the Ottoman Empire and stripped the Turkish Sultan of his powers, triggering the Khilafat Movement’s intensification.
