Introduction to 6th Century BCE India
The 6th century BCE marks a transformative period in early Indian history. This era is associated with the emergence of early states, urban centers, increased use of iron technology, and the development of coinage. The iron technology and use of coins brought revolutionary changes to material life and strengthened the tendency toward settled civilization.
During this period, various philosophical ideologies developed, including Buddhism and Jainism. References to Janapadas as states or administrative units appear in the Late Vedic period. The development of agriculture, industry, trade, and commerce caused a shift from rural to urban life. By the 6th century BCE, these Janapadas evolved into Mahajanapadas (great kingdoms).
The Sixteen Mahajanapadas of Ancient India
Historical Sources and References
No single text provides a clear description of the political conditions of the 6th century BCE. However, early Buddhist and Jain texts mention sixteen Mahajanapadas. Different texts list these names differently, likely due to political changes occurring at various times and the geographical knowledge of list compilers.
The grammarian Panini mentioned 22 Mahajanapadas, identifying three as particularly important: Magadha, Kosala, and Vatsa.
The Canonical List of 16 Mahajanapadas
The Buddhist text Anguttara Nikaya mentions 16 Mahajanapadas, suggesting that shortly before Buddha’s emergence, the entire northern India was divided into sixteen large states. According to the Anguttara Nikaya list, the sixteen Mahajanapadas were:
- Kashi
- Kosala
- Anga
- Magadha
- Vajji
- Malla
- Chedi
- Vatsa
- Kuru
- Panchala
- Matsya
- Surasena
- Ashmaka
- Avanti
- Gandhara
- Kamboja
The Janavasabhasutta mentions only twelve states. The Chullaniiddesa adds Kalinga to the list of sixteen Mahajanapadas and mentions Yona instead of Gandhara. The Mahavastu mentions Shivi and Dasarna instead of Gandhara and Kamboja. However, among all these lists, the Anguttara Nikaya list is considered most authentic.
Jain Sources on Mahajanapadas
The Jain text Bhagavati Sutra also provides a list of Mahajanapadas, though with somewhat different names: Anga, Banga, Magaha (Magadha), Malaya, Malava, Achcha, Vachcha (Vatsa), Kochcha, Padhya, Ladha, Vajji, Moli (Malla), Kashi, Kosala, Avadha, and Sambhuttara.
Hemchandra Raychaudhuri suggests that the states mentioned in the Bhagavati Sutra indicate the political situation of far-eastern and far-southern India. The expansion of these Mahajanapadas suggests they came after the states mentioned in Anguttara Nikaya.
Monarchy and Republic Systems
Among the sixteen Mahajanapadas mentioned during this period, two types of governance systems prevailed. Mahajanapadas like Anga, Magadha, Kashi, Kosala, Chedi, Vatsa, Kuru, Panchala, Matsya, Surasena, Ashmaka, Avanti, Gandhara, and Kamboja had monarchical systems. Meanwhile, Mahajanapadas like Vajji and Malla were governed under Gana or Sangha (republican) systems.
In monarchical Mahajanapadas, the king conducted governance. However, in Gana and Sangha states, a group of distinguished people ruled, and each member of this group was called a “Raja” (king).
Detailed Description of the 16 Mahajanapadas
1. Kashi Mahajanapada
Kashi was spread across present-day Varanasi and its surrounding areas in ancient times. Its capital was Varanasi, surrounded by the Varuna River in the north and the Assi River in the south. This is confirmed by the travel account of Chinese traveler Faxian, who visited India in the 5th century.
The Vayu, Brahmanda, Matsya, Markandeya, and Padma Puranas count Kashi among the Janapadas of Madhyadesha (Middle Country). According to the Puranas, King Kasha, a descendant of Pururava who established Kashi, gave his name to his descendants who were called “Kashi.” This is possibly why this Janapada was named Kashi.
Ashvasena, father of Jain Tirthankara Parshvanath, was among the famous kings here. Buddhist texts reveal prolonged conflict between Kashi and Kosala. At one time, King Brahmadatta of Kashi conquered Kosala. However, ultimately, Kansa, the king of Kosala, conquered Kashi and incorporated it into his kingdom.
Hemchandra Raychaudhuri compared Varanasi to ancient Babylon and medieval Rome.
2. Kosala Mahajanapada
According to Anguttara Nikaya, before Buddha’s time, Kosala was counted among the major Mahajanapadas of northern India, with its capital at Ayodhya and Saketa. This Janapada was situated in the region along the Sarayu River, including areas of modern Faizabad, Ambedkar Nagar, Gonda, Bahraich, and parts of Jaunpur in Uttar Pradesh.
Pali texts call it “Sundarika.” Ayodhya, Saketa, and Shravasti were the main cities of this Mahajanapada. Ayodhya has the distinction of being Kosala’s most ancient capital. Saketa was its second capital. During Buddha’s time, both Saketa and Shravasti were counted among the six great cities.
In the 6th century BCE, Kosala’s capital was at Shravasti, whose ruins have been found near Sahet-Mahet near Gonda. The Jatakas also mention another city of Kosala called Setavya. The Mahavagga Jataka mentions an attack on Kosala by Kashi King Brahmadatta.
Eventually, Kosala’s power grew, and it gained control over Kashi. Credit goes to Kosala King Kansa. Before Buddha, Kosala’s ruler was Mahakosala, who married his daughter Mahakoshala or Koshaladevi to Magadha King Bimbisara. Buddha’s contemporary Kosala king was Prasenajit. In the 6th and 5th centuries BCE, Kosala was as powerful a state as Magadha.
3. Anga Mahajanapada
Ancient India’s Anga Mahajanapada included modern Bhagalpur, Munger, and adjoining areas of Bihar and Bengal. The Ramayana credits Ananga with establishing Anga. The Mahabharata and Matsya Purana credit King Anga with its establishment.
This Mahajanapada’s capital, Champa city, was located on the banks of the Champa River. Champa is first mentioned in the Atharvaveda. The Mahabharata and Puranas give Champa’s ancient name as “Malini.” The Digha Nikaya reveals that the famous architect Mahagovinda designed Champa city. During Buddha’s time, Champa was counted among the six famous cities.
Being a neighbor of Magadha, prolonged rivalry continued between Anga and Magadha. Initially, King Brahmadatta of this Janapada defeated Magadha King Bhattiya and captured some areas of Magadha. According to the Vidhura Pandita Jataka, Rajagriha was a city of the Anga kingdom. Eventually, Anga’s power weakened, and this Mahajanapada was incorporated into Magadha.
4. Magadha Mahajanapada
This Mahajanapada spread across the areas of Patna, Gaya, and Shahabad in Bihar province. Magadha Mahajanapada’s boundaries extended from the Ganges in the north to the Vindhya Mountains in the south, from Champa in the east to the Son River in the west.
During the Buddhist period and later, Magadha was the most powerful Janapada in northern India. The Jain text Prajnapana Sutra mentions Magadha and its capital Rajagriha at many places. The Ramayana credits Brahma’s son Vasu with its establishment and calls it Vasumati on this basis. Puranic descriptions indicate that Kushagra established it.
Magadha and Anga were neighboring states, with the Champa River forming the dividing line between them. Until the Late Vedic period, Magadha remained outside the influence of Aryan civilization. The Abhidhana Chintamani calls Magadha “Kikata.” King Vishvasphatic first established the caste system in Magadha, propagating Aryan civilization.
During Buddha’s time, Magadha was a powerful and organized monarchy. At this time, Bimbisara ruled Magadha, followed by his son Ajatashatru. Bimbisara made Girivraja (Rajgir) his capital. Eventually, Magadha’s capital was established at Pataliputra. In subsequent centuries, this Janapada’s power continued to grow, and Magadha’s history became the history of all India.
5. Vajji Mahajanapada
The Vajji republic was part of a confederacy of states in ancient India. This Mahajanapada extended across modern Muzaffarpur between the Ganges and the Nepal Terai. This confederacy had eight members (Atthakula), among which the Videha of Mithila, Lichchhavi of Vaishali, and Jnatrika of Kundapura were most famous.
Mithila is equated with Janakpur located on the Nepal border. Initially, Videha had a monarchy, but later it joined the confederation. Vaishali is identified with modern Basarh in Muzaffarpur district of northern Bihar. Kundagrama was near Vaishali, identified with Kshatriyakunda.
Jain Tirthankara Mahavira was the son of Siddhartha, chief of the Jnatrika clan of Kundagrama, and his mother Trishala was a princess of the Lichchhavi clan of Vaishali. Other states possibly included Ugra, Bhoga, Ikshvaku, and Kaurava. During Buddha’s time, the Vajji republic was a powerful confederation.
6. Malla Mahajanapada
This Gana-Sangha (republic) spread across present-day Deoria and Gorakhpur districts of eastern Uttar Pradesh. Like the Vajjis, the Malla were also a Sangha (republican) state. The Valmiki Ramayana reveals that Ramachandra established this divine city for Lakshmana’s son Chandraketu.
According to Buddhist literature, the Mallas had two branches: Kushinara (Kushavati) and Pava (Padrauna). Kushinara is equated with the mound of Anurudhva village in Kasya, about 34 km north of Deoria. The second capital of the Mallas, Pava, is equated with Padrauna in Deoria district, though some scholars identify it with Fazil Nagar located southeast of Kasya.
Like Videha, here too initially there was monarchical rule, but later a republic was established. Buddhist and Jain literature mention rivalry between the Mallas and Lichchhavis. Until Buddha’s time, the Mallas maintained independent existence, but eventually fell victim to Magadha’s expansionist policy.
7. Chedi Mahajanapada
The Chedi state spread between the Chambal and Ken rivers south of the Yamuna in modern Bundelkhand. The Chetiya Jataka mentions its capital as Sotthivati (Suktimati). In Anguttara Nikaya, a city named “Sahajati” in the Chedi region is equated with Suktimati of the Mahabharata.
The Vishnu Purana mentions Chedi King Shishupala, described as a rival of Mahabharata-era Krishna. The Chetiya Jataka mentions a king named Uparichar. The Mahabharata mentions Uparichar as the Chedi king. Possibly, Kalinga King Kharavela was a king of this dynasty.
8. Vatsa Mahajanapada
Vatsa Mahajanapada spread around modern Allahabad and Banda. Pali texts call it “Vansa” and Jain literature calls it “Vachcha.” Its capital, Kaushambi, is equated with modern Kosam located on the left bank of the Yamuna, about 48 km west of Allahabad.
The Ramayana and Mahabharata credit Kushamb with establishing Kaushambi. The Vishnu Purana reveals that King Nichakshu of Hastinapura made Kaushambi his capital after Hastinapura was swept away by Ganges floods.
During Gautama Buddha’s time, the ruler of Vatsa was Paurava dynasty king Udayana, who married Vasavadatta, daughter of Avanti King Chandapradyota. Excavations at Kaushambi have revealed remains of a monastery built by merchant Ghoshit, a moat, and Udayana’s palace.
9. Kuru Mahajanapada
Kuru Mahajanapada included the areas of Thaneshwar, Meerut, and Delhi. Its capital was Indraprastha (modern Delhi). During the Mahabharata period, the Kuru Janapada’s capital was Hastinapura (Meerut, UP).
Kuru’s neighboring Janapada was Panchala, so both are mentioned together at many places. Kuru rulers had political and marital relations with the Yadavas, Bhojas, and Panchalas. During Buddha’s time, the king here was Koravya. Initially, Kuru was a monarchical state, but later a republic was established.
10. Panchala Mahajanapada
Panchala Mahajanapada spread across the districts of Bareilly, Badaun, Etah, Mainpuri, and Farrukhabad in western Uttar Pradesh. Panchala was the collective name of five ancient clans: Krivi, Keshi, Srijaya, Turvas, and Somaka.
The Mahabharata and Buddhist texts reveal it also had two branches: Northern Panchala and Southern Panchala, with the Ganges River forming the dividing line. Northern Panchala extended from the Himalayas to the northern bank of the Ganges, with its capital at Ahichchhatra or Chhattravati or Adisadra mentioned by Ptolemy. Its remains have been found at Ramnagar (Bareilly, UP).
Southern Panchala extended from the southern bank of the Ganges to Charmanvati, with its capital at Kampilya. Kampilya is identified with Kampil located near Fatehgarh in Farrukhabad district. Brahmanical, Buddhist, and Jain texts mention Panchala ruler Chulin Brahmadatta.
11. Matsya (Machha) Mahajanapada
Matsya Mahajanapada extended across the Alwar, Bharatpur, and Jaipur districts of modern Rajasthan. Its capital, Viratanagara (modern Bairat), was established by a king named Virat. The Bhagavata and Vishnu Puranas mention Matsya among Vasu’s five sons.
The Mahabharata describes Sahaja as ruling over both Matsya and Chedi states. The Digha Nikaya mentions the Matsya Janapada along with Surasena. The Pandavas spent one year of their incognito exile staying with Virat in Matsya country. During Buddha’s time, this Mahajanapada had no special significance.
12. Surasena Mahajanapada
Surasena was a famous Mahajanapada of northern India, spread across modern Brajmandal. Its capital was Mathura. Ancient Greek writers called this state “Surasene” and its capital “Methora.”
According to the Mahabharata and Puranas, the Yadu (Yadava) dynasty ruled here, and Krishna was king here. The Yadu dynasty was divided into clans like Vithotra and Satvata. During Buddha’s time, the ruler here was Avantiputta, with whose help Buddhism spread in Mathura.
According to Majjhima Nikaya, Avantiputta was born to a daughter of Avanti King Pradyota. During Megasthenes’ time, Mathura was the main center of Krishna worship. Initially, there was a republic here, but later a monarchy was established.
13. Ashmaka Mahajanapada
Among ancient India’s 16 Mahajanapadas, Ashmaka was the only Mahajanapada located south of the Vindhya Mountains. Buddhist literature Suttanipata places Ashmaka on the Godavari bank. The Vayu Purana and Mahabharata mention a king named Ashmaka. Possibly, this Janapada was called Ashmaka after this king.
Initially, the Ashmakas settled on the Godavari bank, with Potali or Paithan (Pratishthanapur) as their capital. According to the Puranas, Ikshvaku dynasty kings established monarchy in Ashmaka. Greek writers mention Assacenoi (Ashvakas) people in northwestern India.
Before Buddha, Ashmaka was in continuous conflict with Avanti, and during Buddha’s time, Avanti conquered it and incorporated it into its empire.
14. Avanti Mahajanapada
The Jain text Bhagavati Sutra calls Avanti Mahajanapada “Malava.” The Jain text Vividhatirthakalpa mentions the name Avanti for the Malwa region. This Mahajanapada broadly included the area between present-day Malwa, Nimar, and Madhya Pradesh.
According to the Puranas, Avanti was established by Yadavanshi Kshatriyas. Possibly, the Avanti Janapada was divided into two parts: Northern Avanti and Southern Avanti. Northern Avanti’s capital was Ujjayini, and Southern Avanti’s capital was Mahishmati.
During Buddha’s time, Avanti’s king was Chandapradyota. Bhasa’s Svapnavasavadatta reveals that Pradyota’s daughter Vasavadatta married Vatsa King Udayana. The Jain text Parishishtaparvan reveals that conflict between Magadha and Avanti continued for a long time.
15. Gandhara Mahajanapada
Gandhara Mahajanapada extended across western Pakistan and eastern Afghanistan. This region’s main center was around modern Peshawar. Its capital, Takshashila, is equated with Shah ki Dheri located about 19 km northwest of Rawalpindi.
At Kekaya King Yudhajit’s suggestion, Rama’s brother Bharata conquered Gandharva country and established cities named Takshashila and Pushkalavati here. Takshashila had been a major center of educational and commercial activities since ancient times.
The Dhammapada Atthakatha reveals that Prasenajit received education at Takshashila. The ruler here, Pushkarasarin, was contemporary to Magadha ruler Bimbisara and sent a diplomatic mission to the Magadha king’s court.
16. Kamboja Mahajanapada
The Buddhist text Anguttara Nikaya and Panini’s Ashtadhyayi count Kamboja among fifteen powerful Janapadas. Buddhist text Assalayanasutra and Ashoka’s rock edicts mention “Yonakambojjesu,” “Yonakambojagandharayesu” (Dhauli), and “Yonakambojagandharanam” (Girnar). This suggests Kamboja was adjacent to Gandhara.
Ancient Vedic literature reveals that Kamboja country extended from Kashmir in the north to the Hindu Kush. Rajpur, Dwarka, and Kapishi were its main cities. The Kambojallu Sutra reveals that grammarian Panini himself was a resident of a region adjacent to Kamboja.
In the 4th century BCE, a Sangha or republic was also established in Kamboja, as the Arthashastra designates the Kambojas as “Vartashastraopajivi Sangha,” meaning a confederation earning livelihood through agriculture and weapons.
Geographical Extent of the Mahajanapadas
All Mahajanapadas of the 6th century BCE spread from modern northern Afghanistan to Bihar and from the Hindu Kush to the Godavari River. Buddhist Nikayas divide India into five parts: Uttarapatha (northwestern part), Madhyadesha (Middle Country), Prachi (eastern part), Dakshinapatha (southern route), and Aparanta (western part).
This suggests India’s geographical unity was conceived since the 6th century BCE. Examining the Janapada lists in the Jain texts Bhagavati Sutra and Sutrakritanga, Panini’s Ashtadhyayi, Baudhayana Dharmasutra, and Mahabharata reveals that the region from the Himalayas in the north to Kanyakumari, and from Gandhara region in the west to Assam in the east was covered by these Mahajanapadas.
Political Significance of the Mahajanapada Period
The Mahajanapada period represents a crucial transition in ancient Indian political history. This era witnessed:
- The emergence of powerful centralized states
- Development of sophisticated administrative systems
- Growth of republican forms of government alongside monarchies
- Intensification of inter-state rivalries and territorial expansion
- Establishment of permanent capitals and urban centers
The rivalry between Magadha and other powerful Mahajanapadas like Kosala, Avanti, and Vatsa shaped the political landscape of ancient India. Eventually, Magadha emerged victorious, laying the foundation for the great empires that would follow.
Economic and Social Transformations
The 6th century BCE witnessed significant economic and social changes:
Economic Changes:
- Introduction of punch-marked coins facilitated trade
- Iron tools enhanced agricultural productivity
- Urban centers became hubs of commercial activity
- Long-distance trade networks expanded
- Craft specialization increased
Social Changes:
- Rise of merchant and artisan classes
- Questioning of rigid Vedic rituals and caste hierarchies
- Emergence of new religious movements (Buddhism, Jainism)
- Growth of cosmopolitan urban culture
- Increased social mobility
Cultural and Religious Developments
This period saw the emergence of heterodox religious movements that challenged Brahmanical orthodoxy. Buddhism and Jainism arose as reform movements, emphasizing ethical conduct, non-violence, and individual spiritual effort over ritualism.
The Mahajanapadas provided the political stability and economic prosperity necessary for these religious movements to flourish. Rulers like Bimbisara and Prasenajit patronized Buddha, while Mahavira found support among the republican clans of Vajji.
Legacy of the Mahajanapadas
The 16 Mahajanapadas period laid the foundation for classical Indian civilization. This era witnessed:
- Evolution from tribal chiefdoms to territorial states
- Development of sophisticated political institutions
- Emergence of urban culture and commerce
- Religious and philosophical innovations
- Literary and artistic achievements
The political consolidation during this period ultimately led to the rise of great empires like the Mauryas and Guptas, which built upon the administrative and cultural foundations established during the Mahajanapada age.
Conclusion
The 6th century BCE represents a watershed moment in ancient Indian history. The 16 Mahajanapadas embodied the political, economic, and social transformations that shaped classical Indian civilization. From powerful monarchies like Magadha to republican confederations like Vajji, these states demonstrated diverse political experiments.
The iron age technology, urbanization, coinage, and new religious movements of this period created the conditions for India’s classical age. Understanding the Mahajanapadas provides essential context for comprehending the subsequent development of Indian civilization, from the great empires to the religious and philosophical traditions that continue to influence the subcontinent today.
