Spain, nestled south of the Pyrenees Mountains and bordered by the Mediterranean Sea, the Atlantic Ocean, and Portugal, is a vast plateau region. Before the 15th century, Spain lacked political unity and was divided into several regional kingdoms. In the 8th century, Moorish Muslims from North Africa established dominance over Spain, forcing Christian inhabitants to seek refuge in the mountains. Over time, Spanish Christian forces ended centuries of Moorish influence, restoring Christianity.
Several factors contributed to the rise of a powerful absolute monarchy in Spain. First, the marriage of Queen Isabella of Castile and King Ferdinand of Aragon established a unified monarchy. Second, Spain’s colonial expansion policy led to the discovery of America, conquests in the West Indies, Mexico, and Peru, bringing immense wealth. Gold, silver, and other valuables from America proved a boon for Spain. Third, to expand influence in Europe, Ferdinand arranged his second daughter Maria’s marriage to Portugal’s King Manuel I and his youngest daughter Catherine’s to England’s Prince Arthur. After Arthur’s death, Catherine married Henry VIII (1509-1547). This marital diplomacy secured Spain’s prominent international position.
Ferdinand’s eldest daughter, Joanna, was heir to Castile and Aragon. She married Habsburg Prince Philip I, whose father was Archduke Maximilian I of Austria and mother Mary of Burgundy, heiress to the Netherlands. In 1482, Philip inherited the Netherlands. In 1500, Joanna and Philip’s son Charles was born. After Isabella’s death in 1504, Joanna became joint ruler of Castile with her father Ferdinand, but she showed little interest in governance. Thus, Philip I began ruling Castile and the Netherlands.
Charles V: The Dawn of a Grand Empire (1516 Onward)
Charles V’s ascension as ruler of Spain in 1516 was a pivotal event in European history. After Philip’s death in 1506, six-year-old Charles became ruler of the Netherlands. His mother Joanna’s mental instability earned her the nickname “Joanna the Mad.” Due to her condition, Charles assumed control of Castile. Following Ferdinand’s death in 1516, Charles administered Spain, Naples, Sicily, Africa, and American colonies. In 1519, after his grandfather Maximilian’s death, he inherited the Habsburg Empire, including Austria, Bohemia, Hungary, Carniola, Carinthia, Styria, and Tyrol, but entrusted its administration to his brother Ferdinand.
Emperor Charles V (1520-1556): Ambitions and Alliances
Like his grandfather Maximilian, Charles aspired to become Holy Roman Emperor. France’s King Francis I (1515-1547) and England’s Henry VIII were also ambitious for the title. Francis believed Charles’s control over Spain, Italy, and the Netherlands would disrupt the balance of power. Nevertheless, in 1520, Charles defeated his rivals and was crowned at Aachen (Aix-la-Chapelle). Thus, Charles V emerged as one of Europe’s most powerful and fortunate rulers, inheriting a vast empire.
Challenges Facing Charles V
Charles inherited a sprawling empire fraught with challenges. It was a dynastic conglomerate of disconnected states and territories, each with independent governance. Germany had a nominal central system, while Spain, the Netherlands, and Italian states lacked even that. The Netherlands, his wealthiest region, comprised 17 provinces with distinct identities. The Spanish Empire included Granada, American colonies, and North African areas with varying administrations. Charles had to balance the Holy Roman Empire’s financial, judicial, and religious affairs alongside conflicting regional interests. He also confronted the rapidly spreading Protestant Reformation in Germany.
Achievements of Charles V
Governance in Spain
After Ferdinand’s death in 1516, Charles V became emperor of the Spanish Empire, ruling with absolute authority. Parliaments in Castile and Aragon unsuccessfully tried to limit his powers. His absolutism irked nobles and city representatives, sparking rebellions from 1520 to 1522. Charles exploited divisions between nobles and representatives to suppress them. When nobles supported absolutism against representatives, he curtailed the latter’s rights, appointing royal officials for city administration and transforming parliament into a royal institution. To appease Spaniards, by 1523 he appointed locals to most government posts and married Portugal’s Princess Isabella in 1526.
Through imperialist policies, Charles elevated Spain’s international prestige. He established Spanish colonies in Mexico, Central America, Peru, Bolivia, Chile, New Granada, and Venezuela. However, his absolutism hindered Spain’s constitutional development. Imperialist pursuits burdened the treasury with nearly 20 million pounds in debt. Anti-Moor policies drove industrious Moors away, harming economic and industrial growth. Colonial expansion made Spaniards luxurious and idle, leading to moral and social decline.
Rule in the Netherlands
Born and raised in the Netherlands, Charles enjoyed natural loyalty there. He unified its 17 provinces into a federation, establishing a States General (parliament) and three councils while adopting non-interference. This strengthened the economy, though imperialist policies increased taxes.
Religious Intolerance
As a staunch Catholic, Charles suppressed Calvinists in the Netherlands and established Inquisition courts. Despite this, Protestantism grew. His policy paved the way for the Dutch Protestant Republic under Philip II, marking his administration in the Netherlands as a failure.
Holy Roman Empire Administration
In 1520, Charles defeated Francis I and Henry VIII to become Holy Roman Emperor. Germany proved a major challenge, divided into semi-independent states with rising nationalism. Germans prized their language and traditions, but princes lacked unity. Charles’s unification efforts faced opposition. In 1521, the Diet of Worms established a regency council with 23 members representing German interests. German merchants opposed a customs union, and entangled in wars with France, Charles abandoned the plan.
Opposition to the Reformation
Protestantism was rising in Germany. Nobles supported Martin Luther to expand their powers. As a devout Catholic, Charles opposed the Reformation, turning German nobles against him and plunging Germany into civil war. Ultimately, the 1555 Peace of Augsburg recognized Lutheranism. Charles failed to establish national unity in Germany or halt Protestantism.
Charles V’s Foreign Policy
Charles’s vast empire irked European rulers. France’s Francis I was his chief rival. Ottoman Turks’ growing influence in Eastern Europe and the Mediterranean, plus policies of the Pope and Henry VIII, posed challenges. He had to defend his empire and uphold Habsburg prestige.
Relations with France
Charles sought amicable ties with France, but wars became inevitable. In 1522, conflict erupted between France and the Habsburg Empire. With aid from Henry VIII and Rome, Charles expelled Francis from northern Italy and captured him at the 1525 Battle of Pavia. The 1529 Treaty of Cambrai forced Francis to relinquish claims on Naples, Milan, and the Netherlands. In 1530, the Pope crowned Charles Holy Roman Emperor. Subsequent wars strengthened Charles’s position, and the 1559 Treaty of Cateau-Cambrésis solidified Habsburg influence in Italy.
Relations with the Turks
Turks seized Hungary in 1541, forcing Charles and Ferdinand to accept Turkish conquests. In 1535, Charles captured Tunis, suppressing Turkish admiral Barbarossa.
Relations with England
Initially, Spain-England relations were cordial, but Henry VIII’s divorce from Catherine strained them. In 1553, under Mary Tudor, Charles arranged his son Philip II’s marriage to Mary, improving ties.
Evaluation of Charles V
Charles was dutiful, honest, and renowned. As a Catholic, he invaluable served and protected the Church and Pope. He patronized Renaissance art, painting, music, and scientific progress, with keen interest in astrology. He contributed to capitalism’s development in Germany and the Netherlands. However, his vast empire’s conflicting interests prevented unity. Exhausted, in 1556 he ceded the Spanish Empire to Philip II and the Habsburg Empire to brother Ferdinand, retiring to a monastery where he died in 1558. Thus ended a glorious era in Spanish history.
Philip II: Ambition, Faith, and the Twilight of Empire (1556-1598)
Philip II, son of Charles V, was born in Spain in 1527. He inherited a vast empire: Spain, the Netherlands, Franche-Comté, Milan, Sicily, Naples, America, the West Indies, and the Philippines. Living lifelong in Spain, his goal was making it Europe’s mightiest nation. To strengthen family ties with Habsburg ruler Uncle Ferdinand, he married his sister to Ferdinand and his son to Ferdinand’s granddaughter.
Upon becoming emperor in 1556, Philip adopted two ideals: patriotism and religious devotion. His patriotism fueled loyalty to Spain, while religious zeal meant unwavering Catholic faith. He aimed to make Spain supreme but was willing to sacrifice politics for religion. Historian Hayes noted, “If a choice arose between Spain’s progress and the Church, the former would be sacrificed for the latter.” Thus, his politics were national, but religious policy international.
Philip II’s Policies
Philip inherited a disjointed collection of states with unique institutions and traditions. His patriotism and religious policies complicated matters. He faced three major internal issues: Spain’s dilapidated economy, Moorish rebellion, and the fierce Netherlands revolt.
Internal Policies
Strengthening Royal Power
Philip emphasized administrative unity for Spain’s national integration. To boost royal power, he ignored the Spanish parliament “Cortes.” He collected existing taxes without Cortes’ advice, though consulting for new ones. He personally nominated Cortes members and disempowered nobles, establishing absolute rule.
Building a Land Army
Philip focused on forming a standing army but neglected the navy, a grave error that hindered suppressing the Netherlands revolt.
Economic Challenges in Spain
Spain’s crumbling economy was Philip’s most complex problem, rooted in a privilege-based system. Despite monopolies on American trade and silver imports, smuggling by Dutch, French, and English merchants eroded it. Philip imposed heavy “alcabala” sales taxes on domestic industries and trade, crippling them. Suppressing skilled Moorish and Jewish communities further damaged industrial growth. Prolonged wars worsened the situation. Philip failed to resolve these economic woes.
Religious Policy
As a fanatic Catholic, Philip persecuted Protestants, Moors, and Jews. This sparked a 1569 Moorish rebellion. Moors resisted in mountainous areas for two years, but Philip crushed it in 1570. While successful in suppression, it devastated Spain’s trade and commerce. Jewish persecution had similar effects. He extensively used Inquisition courts against non-Catholics. He cooperated with the Pope only when supported; otherwise, he severed ties. Papal orders required his approval in Spain. Yet, he failed to universalize Catholicism in Europe and faced a brutal revolt in the Netherlands.
The Netherlands Revolt (1556-1598)
In the 16th century, modern Holland and Belgium were called the Netherlands, a prosperous trade hub. Charles V’s rule was popular, but Philip II’s policies incited rebellion, evolving into a national independence movement.
Causes of the Revolt
Economic Factors: The Netherlands was economically thriving. For wars and administration, Philip raised taxes without national council approval. Unlike Charles, who consulted the council and encouraged trade, Philip imposed restrictions, stunting growth.
Religious Factors: Fanatic Catholic Philip sought to universalize Catholicism. Calvinist Protestants were rapidly growing, intolerable to him. He increased Catholic bishops and established brutal Inquisition courts, driving the populace to armed rebellion.
Political Factors: Philip’s absolutism fueled revolt. He disregarded the national council and appointed Spanish officials to high posts, ignoring locals. Spanish troops’ presence threatened freedoms and traditions.
Personal Factors: Born and raised in Spain, Philip lacked Charles’s sympathy for Netherlanders. He imposed arbitrary taxes and trade bans for Spanish interests. Seen as a foreigner, he sparked rebellion.
Key Events of the Revolt
In 1559, Philip appointed his sister Margaret as regent but gave real power to Cardinal Granvelle as council president. Netherlanders opposed Granvelle, forcing his recall. Nobles and citizens petitioned Margaret, who dismissed it as “beggars’ petition.” From 1566, opponents called themselves “Beggars.”
When Philip failed to abolish religious courts, Protestant supporters attacked Catholic churches in 1566, smashing idols and desecrating monasteries. In response, Philip sent the Duke of Alva in 1567. Alva established the “Council of Troubles” (Blood Council), executing about 8,000 opponents from 1567-1572. He imposed heavy taxes, igniting fierce revolt.
William the Silent
William of Orange (1533-1584), known as William the Silent, transformed the revolt into an independence movement. Ruler of Holland and Zeeland, he converted to Calvinism and fled to Germany upon Alva’s arrival. Returning at rebels’ invitation, he organized Dutch sailors to harass Spanish ships. Securing aid from France, Germany, and England, he ousted Alva’s control from northern Netherlands. Alva briefly recaptured the north after eight months.
In 1573, Philip replaced Alva with Requesens. William thwarted Requesens’ siege of Leiden. Spanish troops looted and massacred in northern and southern towns, dubbed the “Spanish Fury.” In response, all 17 provinces signed the 1576 Pacification of Ghent, vowing to abolish religious courts and resist until Spanish troops withdrew. After Requesens’ 1576 death, Philip appointed half-brother Don John, who failed against William. Don John died in 1578.
In 1578, Alexander Farnese, Duke of Parma, became regent. Exploiting Protestant-Catholic divides, he formed the League of Arras in the south. William countered with the Union of Utrecht in the north’s seven provinces. This ended Ghent’s pact, splitting Netherlands: southern “Spanish Netherlands” (modern Belgium) and northern “United Provinces” or “Holland.”
In 1581, northern provinces declared independence under William, hailed as a sovereignty of human rights declaration. Philip assassinated William in 1584. William’s son Maurice led, continuing with English and French aid. Struggle persisted beyond Philip II’s 1598 death into Philip III’s reign. Finally, post-Thirty Years’ War in 1648, the Dutch Republic gained recognition: north as Dutch Republic, south as Spanish Netherlands.
Reasons for Defeat in the Netherlands Revolt
1. Exploitation and Religious Repression: Philip’s exploitative and anti-Protestant policies convinced Netherlanders he was foreign, turning revolt into national independence.
2. Empire’s Vastness: Administrative difficulties and wars with France and England prevented full focus on suppression.
3. Naval Weakness: Spanish navy faltered against Dutch strong navy and guerrilla tactics.
4. Foreign Aid: Dutch received military and economic support from France, England, and Germany.
5. William’s Leadership: William boosted morale and sustained the fight in every situation.
Philip neither solved Spain’s economic issues nor universalized Catholicism in Europe. He succeeded in suppressing Moors, but at economic cost. Had he not prioritized religion over politics, his domestic policy might have succeeded.
Foreign Policy
Beyond internal woes, Philip faced foreign challenges. He aimed to make Spain Europe’s leading power, annex Portugal, expand colonies, and defend against Turks in the Mediterranean.
Relations with France
Rivalry from Charles V’s era intensified with Philip and France’s Henry II’s ambitions. The 1559 Treaty of Cateau-Cambrésis forced France to accept Spanish dominance in Italy and recognize French control of Calais. After Henry II’s death, French civil war erupted. Philip backed Catholics, while French Protestants (Huguenots) aided Netherlands rebels. Opposing Protestant Prince Henry of Navarre (Henry IV) as heir, Philip failed. In 1598’s Treaty of Vervins, he recognized Henry IV and reaffirmed Cateau-Cambrésis. His French policy flopped. Hayes said, “Spain’s failed interventions strengthened French independence, patriotism, and unity. The next century’s European politics center would be France, not Spain.”
Relations with England
Marriage to Mary Tudor kept relations amicable from 1553-1558. But Mary’s death and Elizabeth Tudor’s ascension soured them. Philip sought control over English policies and Protestant suppression, but Elizabeth embraced Protestantism, altering politics. To punish England, Philip assembled a massive Spanish Armada: 8,000 sailors, 50 ships, 19,000 soldiers. In 1588, he attacked, expecting Catholic support, but English unity destroyed the Armada in the English Channel. British navy raided Spanish port Cadiz. Armada’s defeat exposed Spanish naval weakness and established English supremacy. Hayes noted, “The Armada’s defeat established England’s omnipotence in naval and commercial spheres.”
Relations with Portugal
In 1543, Charles V married Philip to Portugal’s Princess Maria. After Portugal’s king’s 1580 death, Philip seized it via marital claims and army. But his rule dissatisfied Portuguese, sowing independence seeds. In 1640, Portugal freed itself from Spain.
Relations with Turkey
After Sultan Suleiman’s 1566 death, Turks terrorized Hungary and the Mediterranean, seizing Cyprus and threatening Italy and Sicily. Under Pope’s lead, Venice, Genoa, and Spain allied. In 1571, Philip’s half-brother Don John defeated Turks at Lepanto Bay—the greatest Christian victory over Turks, freeing Western Europe from threat.
Evaluation of Philip II
Historians differ on Philip II. English scholars view him as intolerant and despotic; Spanish patriots as a nationalist hero. Truly, he was a fanatic Catholic aiming to make Catholicism Europe’s universal faith. His politics, influenced by religion, caused failures. Netherlands’ Inquisition cruelties were a curse on humanity.
Stubborn, distrustful, and suspicious, Philip tried solving all issues himself but lacked diplomacy. Yet, he was principled, idealistic, with indomitable will and exceptional ability. He worked from dawn to midnight on state affairs. Soft-spoken and reticent, his devotion to Spain was profound. He sought to make Spain world supreme. Though not fully successful, Spaniards admired his patriotism. Thus, the late 16th century is known as “Philip II’s Era” in Spanish history.
